Applied Physics

Contents

Rotational Dynamics
Thermodynamics & Engines

Rotational Dynamics

Angular velocity: the angle of a circle (arc) mapped out

by a rotating object per second:
= s-1

Angular displacement:

Angular velocity: = t-1

Angular acceleration: = /t

Rotational Dynamics

Moment of Inertia: Inertia = objects have a degree of

reluctance to move. Moment of inertia is this but in
rotational movement. Objects oppose the movement of
angular acceleration. The more they oppose, the
greater the moment of inertia (kgm2)

Circular disc:

Solid cylinder: I = Mr2

Solid sphere:

Kinetic Energy: EK = I2

I = Mr2/2

I = 2Mr2/5

Rotational Dynamics

Torque: Turning force

Pulling force causes torque, T:

In terms of inertia:

T = I

T = Fr

Rotational Momentum & Power

Angular Momentum, (L): momentum = mass x velocity.

Angular momentum occurs in rotational movement
L (kgm2s-1) = I
angular momentum before = angular momentum after

Impulse: change in momentum

Angular Impulse, L: change in angular momentum

L = Tt
(small torque for long duration = large torque for small
duration)

Rotational Momentum & Power

Work & Power:

Work done = force x perpendicular distance so

Work done = torque x angle rotated

Power = force x speed so

Power = torque x angular velocity

W = T

P = T

1st Law of Thermodynamics

1st Law of Thermodynamics: Energy can be neither

created nor destroyed (conservation of energy)
- Thus power generation processes and energy sources
actually involve conversion of energy from one form to
another, rather than creation of energy from nothing
Q = U + W
U: Change in internal energy of the system
Q: Heat transferred into/out of the system
W: Work done by/on the system

1st Law of Thermodynamics

Cylinder has area, A. A fluid is admitted at constant

pressure, p
p = F/A &
Wd = fd
rearrange: F = pA

Wd = pAd (Ad = volume, V)

Wd = pV

or Wd = pV

1st Law of Thermodynamics

pV = nRT (Ideal Gas Law)

Boyles Law: pV = constant

- Temperature remains constant (isothermal)
- pV = constant and p1V1 = p2V2
- U = 0 because the internal energy is dependent on
temperature, which does not change
- Q = W.If the gas expands to do work W, &
amount of heat Q must be supplied
- compression or expansion produces the same graph

1st Law of Thermodynamics

Adiabatic: no heat flow (Q=0) into or out of a system

For a change in pressure or volume in a system, the

temperature loss can be calculated:

p1V1/T1 = p2V2/T2
At high p, low V: adiabatic = value
expected for isothermal at high T
At low p, high V: adiabatic cuts
isothermal at low T
Equation for adiabatic line:
pV = k
= Cp/Cv
k = constant

Adiabatic compression

1st Law of Thermodynamics

Isovolumetric: p1T1 = p2T2

Isobaric:

V1T1 = V2T2
Adiabatic compression

P-V diagrams & Engines

Gases undergo changes that will eventually cause them

to return to the original state. An ideal gas undergoing
these changes has the properties shown below:
- Isovolumetric changes between a & b and c & d
- Isobaric changes between b & c and d & a

P-V diagrams & Engines

Thermal Efficiency:

net work output heat input

Actual efficiency of the engine will be lower than the

value of thermal efficiency alone, due to frictional
losses within the engine. The efficiency of a car =
approx. 30%

Petrol Engine: Otto Cycle

P-V diagrams & Engines

Diesel Engine:
- Higher thermal efficiency that petrol engines
- Heavier than petrol engines
- More noise and incomplete combustion (pollution)

Both Engines:
power output: area of p-V loop x n o cylinders x no cycles per
sec

maximum energy input: fuel calorific value x fuel flow rate

2nd Law & Engines

2nd Law of Thermodynamics: Entropy of an isolated

system not in equilibrium will tend to increase over time,
approaching a maximum value at equilibrium
- i.e. entropy increases & all processes tend towards
chaos

Temperature gradient: Heat flows from a region of hot

temperature to a region of cold temperature

All heat engines give up their energy to a cold reservoir

Qin:heat flow from the hot reservoir to the engine
Qout: heat flow from the engine to the cold reservoir.

Work done by heat engine = Qin Qout

Efficiency = W/Qin = (Qin Qout)/Qin

2nd Law & Engines

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Limitations to Thermal Efficiency:

- in an engine:
TH cannot be too high components could melt
TC will be in the range of atmospheric temperatures
Analysis of the engine cycle can help to improve
efficiency
Design of ports so that gas can get enter & exit with
min. resistance
Lubrication reduces friction in bearings

Therefore an engine will never work at its theoretical

efficiency

Summary

Rotational Dynamics
Rotational Momentum & Power
1st Law of Thermodynamics
P-V diagrams & Engines
2nd Law & Engines