Signals and Systems

Linear System Theory

EE 112 - Lecture Eight
Signal classification

Linear Systems

Khosrow Ghadiri - EE Dept. SJSU

Signal

A signal is a pattern of variation that carry

information.
Signals are represented mathematically as a function
of one or more independent variable
A picture is brightness as a function of two spatial
variables, x and y.
In this course signals involving a single independent
variable, generally refer to as a time, t are
considered. Although it may not represent time in
specific application
A signal is a real-valued or scalar-valued function of
an independent variable t.

Signals and Syst

ems

Khosrow Ghadiri - EE Dep

t. SJSU

Example of signals

Electrical signals like voltages, current and

EM field in circuit
Acoustic signals like audio or speech signals
(analog or digital)
Video signals like intensity variation in an
image
Biological signal like sequence of bases in
gene
Noise which will be treated as unwanted
signal

Signals and Syst

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Khosrow Ghadiri - EE Dep

t. SJSU

Signal classification

Continuous-time and Discrete-time

Energy and Power
Real and Complex
Periodic and Non-periodic
Analog and Digital
Even and Odd
Deterministic and Random

Signals and Syst

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Khosrow Ghadiri - EE Dep

t. SJSU

A continuous-time signal

Continuous-time signal x(t), the independent variable, t is

Continuous-time. The signal itself needs not to be continuous.

Signals and Syst

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Khosrow Ghadiri - EE Dep

t. SJSU

A continuous-time signal

x=0:0.05:5;
y=sin(x.^2);
plot(x,y);

Signals and Syst

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Khosrow Ghadiri - EE Dep

t. SJSU

A piecewise continuous-time signal

A piecewise continuous-time signal

0;

1;

x(t )

1;
2;

Signals and Syst

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0 t 10
10 t 20
20 t 25
25 t 30

Khosrow Ghadiri - EE Dep

t. SJSU

A discrete-time signal
A discrete signal x[n] is defined only at discrete instances. Thus,
the independent variable has discrete values only.

Signals and Syst

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Khosrow Ghadiri - EE Dep

t. SJSU

Mathlab file

x = 0:0.1:4;
y = sin(x.^2).*exp(-x);
stem(x,y)

Signals and Syst

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Khosrow Ghadiri - EE Dep

t. SJSU

Sampling

A discrete signal can be derived from a continuous-time signal

by sampling it at a uniform rate.
If denotes the sampling period and n denotes an integer that
may assume positive and negative values,
Sampling a continuous-time signal x(t) at time t n yields a
sample of value x( n )
For convenience, a discrete-time signal is represented by a
sequence of numbers:
We write

x[n] x(n ) n

Such a sequence of numbers is referred to as a time series.

Signals and Syst

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Khosrow Ghadiri - EE Dep

t. SJSU

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A piecewise discrete-time signal

A piecewise discrete-time signal

0;

1;

x n

1;
2;

Signals and Syst

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0 n 10
10 n 20
20 n 25
25 n 30

Khosrow Ghadiri - EE Dep

t. SJSU

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Energy and Power Signals

X(t) is a continuous power signal if:

1
0 lim
T 2T

T
T

x t dt

X[n] is a discrete2 power signal if:

N
1
0 lim
x n

N 2 N 1
n N

X(t) is a continuous energy signal if:

0

x t dt

X[n] is a discrete energy signal if:

0

x n

Signals and Syst

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Khosrow Ghadiri - EE Dep

t. SJSU

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Power and Energy in a Physical System

The instantaneous power

1 2
P t v t i t v t
R

The total energy

t2
t1

t2

t2

t1

t1

P t dt v t i t dt

1 2
v t dt
R

The average power

t2
t2 1
1
1
2
P
t
dt

t dt

t
t
1
1
t2 t1
t2 t1
R

Signals and Syst

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Khosrow Ghadiri - EE Dep

t. SJSU

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Power and Energy

By definition, the total energy over the time interval t1 t t2 in a

continuous-time signal x t is:
t2

E x t dt
2

t1

x t denote the magnitude of the (possibly complex) number x t

The time average power

t2
2
1
P
x t dt

t
1
t2 t1

By definition, the total energy over the time interval n2 n n1 in a

discrete-time signal x n is:
n2

E x n

The time average power

P

Signals and Syst

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n n1

n2
2
1
x
n

n2 n1 1 n n1

Khosrow Ghadiri - EE Dep

t. SJSU

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Power and Energy

Example 1:
The signal x t is given below is energy or power signal.

Explain.

1
P lim
T 2T

T
T

x t

1
dt lim
T 2T

1
E x t dt 3 dt 9t 9
T
0
0

This signal is energy signal

T

Signals and Syst

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1
1
9
9t lim
0
0 3 dt Tlim
2T
T

0
2T
1

1 2

Khosrow Ghadiri - EE Dep

t. SJSU

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Power and Energy

Example 2:
The signal x n is given below is energy or power signal.

Explain.

n2
3
2
1
1
27
2
P lim
x n lim
3 lim
0

N 2 N 1
N 2 N 1
N 2 N 1
n n1
0
n2

E x n 32 27
n n1

This signal is energy signal

Signals and Syst

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Khosrow Ghadiri - EE Dep

t. SJSU

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Real and Complex

A value of a complex signal x t is a complex number

x t x1 t jx2 t

Where j 1 Re x t x1 t

Im x t x2 t

The complex conjugate, x t of the signal x t is;

x t x1 t jx2 t
Re x t

Im x t

Magnitude or absolute value

x t

1
x t x t
2

1
x t x t
2j

1 2
x1 t x22 t x t x t
2

Phase or angle

Signals and Syst

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S x t tan 1 x2 t x1 t

Khosrow Ghadiri - EE Dep

t. SJSU

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Periodic and Non-periodic

A signal x t or x n is a periodic signal if

x t x t mT0 ;

t , m any integer

x n x n mN 0 ; n, m any integer

Here, Toand N o are fundamental period, which is the smallest

positive values when m 1
Example:
x(t ) A cos(ot ); t ;

x(t T0 ) A cos(0 [t mT0 ] ) A cos(0t )

T0

2
; m 0,1, 2......
0

Signals and Syst

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Khosrow Ghadiri - EE Dep

t. SJSU

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Analog and Digital

Digital signal is discrete-time signal whose values belong
to a defined set of real numbers {a1 , a2 ,..., aN }

x[n] x(tn ) ai ; 1 i N

Binary signal is digital signal whose values are 1 or 0

x[n] x(tn ) 0 or 1;

Analog signal is a non-digital signal

Signals and Syst

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Khosrow Ghadiri - EE Dep

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Even and Odd

Even Signals
The continuous-time signal x (t )/discrete-time signal
is an even signal if it satisfies the condition

x(t ) x(t ); t

x[n] x[ n]; n

Even signals are symmetric about the vertical axis

Odd Signals
The signal is said to be an odd signal if it satisfies the
condition

x(t ) x( t ); t

x n

x[n] x[n]; n

Odd signals are anti-symmetric (asymmetric) about

the time origin

Signals and Syst

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Khosrow Ghadiri - EE Dep

t. SJSU

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Even and Odd signals:Facts

Product of 2 even or 2 odd signals is an even signal

Product of an even and an odd signal is an odd signal
Any signal (continuous and discrete) can be expressed
as sum of an even and an odd signal:

x(t ) xe (t ) xo (t );

x[n] xe [n] xo [n]

x(t ) x( t )
x(t ) x(t )
xe (t )
; xo (t )
2
2
x[n] x[ n]
x[n] x[n]
xe [n]
; xo [n]
2
2

Signals and Syst

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Khosrow Ghadiri - EE Dep

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Complex-Valued Signal Symmetry

For a complex-valued signal

x(t ) x1 (t ) j x2 (t )

is said to be conjugate symmetric if it satisfies the

condition
x(t ) x* (t )
where
x *(t ) x1 (t ) j x2 (t )

x1 (t ) is the real part andx2 (t ) is the imaginary part;

j is the square root of -1

Signals and Syst

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Khosrow Ghadiri - EE Dep

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Deterministic and Random signal

A signal is deterministic whose future values can be

predicted accurately.
Example:x (t ) A sin t
A signal is random whose future values can NOT be
predicted with complete accuracy
Random signals whose future values can be statistically
determined based on the past values are correlated
signals.
Random signals whose future values can NOT be
statistically determined from past values are
uncorrelated signals and are more random than
correlated signals.

Signals and Syst

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Khosrow Ghadiri - EE Dep

t. SJSU

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Deterministic and Random signal(contd)

Two ways to describe the randomness

of the signal are:
Entropy:
This is the natural meaning and
mostly used in system performance
measurement.
Correlation:
This is useful in signal processing by
directly using correlation functions.

Signals and Syst

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Khosrow Ghadiri - EE Dep

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Taylor series and Euler relation

General Taylor series

f x f a f a x a f a x a ...
2

n0

f n a x a
n!

Expanding sin and

cos
3
5

x
x
...
3! 5!
x2 x4
cos x 1 ...
2! 4!

sin x x

Expanding exponential

x 2 x3 x 4 x5
e 1 x ...
2! 3! 4! 5!
x

jx

jx
1 jx

jx

2!
Euler relation

x 2 x3
jx
e 1 ...
2! 3!

Signals and Syst

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3!

jx

4!

jx

5!

...

x3 x5
j x ...
cos x j sin x
3!
5!

Khosrow Ghadiri - EE Dep

t. SJSU

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Example

The signal x (t ) and x (t )shown below constitute the real and

imaginary parts of a complex-valued signal x(t.)
What form of symmetry does x(t ) have?
1

x1 (t )

T
2

T
2

Answer
x(t )
is conjugate symmetric.

Signals and Syst

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Khosrow Ghadiri - EE Dep

t. SJSU

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