15.

Energy Applications I: Batteries

Battery types:
Primary Battery: Non reversible chemical reactions (no recharge)
Secondary Battery: Rechargeable
Common characteristics
Electrode
complex coposite of powders of active material and conductive
diluent, polymer matrix to bind the mix
typically 30% porosity, with complex surface throughout the material
allows current production to be uniform in the structure
Current distribution
primary cell geometry
secondary production sites within the porous electrode
parameters affecting the secondarycurrent distribution are
conductivity of diluent (matrix)
electrolyte conductivity,
exchange current
diffusion characteristics of reactants and products
total current flow
porosity, pore size, and tortuosisity
What are Batteries, Fuel Cells, and Supercapacitors, Chem Rev, 2004, 104, 4245, Martin Winter and
Ralph J. Brodd

We will briefly look at: Lead and Lithium insertion

What are Batteries, Fuel Cells, and Supercapacitors, Chem Rev, 2004, 104, 4245, Martin Winter and
Ralph J. Brodd

What are Batteries, Fuel Cells, and Supercapacitors, Chem Rev, 2004, 104, 4245, Martin Winter and
Ralph J. Brodd

Require very good conductivity

Throughout the system
Which tends to lower the energy
Content of the system
In the lead acid system a significant amount
Of the weight Is in the grids required
To hold the paste

What are Batteries, Fuel Cells, and Supercapacitors, Chem Rev, 2004, 104, 4245, Martin Winter and
Ralph J. Brodd

Equivalent Circuit for a Battery

External Resistance, Rext
Terminals, Resistance
To current flow of, RM

Capacitance of
electrode
Internal Discharge
Rate (e.t.)

Resistance of
electrolyte

Basic requirements for a battery

1.
chemical energy stored near the electrode ( if too far away current will
be controlled by time to get to electrode)
2.
The chemical form coating the electrode must allow ion transport, or
better yet, electronic conduction
3.
The chemical form of the energy must be mechanically robust
4.
The chemical form of the energy should generate a large voltage

ad Acid Battery

The capacity of the battery depends on

The type of material present.

Fitch lead book

Support grids

PbO

2 ,s

2e H 2SO

aq

PbSO

4 ,s

2H

One possible mechanism:. simultaneous dissolution of PbO2 and introduction of 2e

Requires electronic conductivity of PbO2 and pore space for motion of wat
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Add e, H+ and OH- to PbO2

Add 2nd e to reduce valence of Pb
Add 3rd e to reduce valence while r
PbO is more soluble than PbO2 so
Initiate formation of PbSO4, nuclea
PbSO4 structure is rhombic which
Therefore need to control the alletr

Beta PbO2 is formed under acid and can be compressed to shorten bonds
overlap induces semiconductor behavior which increases the performance
Of the battery
Add antiomony
To drive reaction
To beta phase

Alpha forms when Pb metal

Corrodes reduces lifetime of
Battery, is more compressible.

Lead Acid battery

a.What is the potential associated with a lead
acid battery with the overall reaction:
Pbs PbO

2 ,s

2H

aq

2H SO

aq

at the following concentration:

[H2SO4] = 4.5 M

2 PbSO

4 ,s

2 H 2O

PbO

2 ,s

2 ,s

aq

4 ,s

2e

4H

aq

PbSO
PbO

4H

2e SO

2e SO

Pbs SO
Pbs PbO

V V

2 ,s

Pbs SO

2H

2
aq

aq

2
aq

PbSO

4 ,s

2 H 2O

Vo
1.69

2
aq

2
aq

PbSO

2H SO

-0.35
PbSO

4 ,s

4 ,s

2 H 2O

-(-0.35)

2e

aq

1.69
2.04

2 PbSO

4 ,s

2 H 2O

0 .0 5 9 2
0 .0 5 9 2

l o g Q 2 .0 4
lo g Q
n
2

Lead Acid battery energy

Pbs PbO

2 ,s

2H

aq

2H SO

aq

2 PbSO

2 H 2O

4 ,s

P b S O 4 ,s H 2 O
0 .0 5 9 2
0 .0 5 9 2

V 2 .0 4
l o g Q 2 .0 4
lo g
2
2
2
Pb PbO H SO
H 3O

s
s
aq

0 .0 5 9 2
0 .0 5 9 2

V 2 .0 4
l o g Q 2 .0 4
lo g
2
2
H SO

0 .0 5 9 2
1
V 2 .0 4
lo g
2
2
2
4 .5 4 .5

V 2 . 0 4 0 . 0 2 9 6 2 . 6 2 .1 1

aq

H
2

c.
What is the free energy associated with the
lead acid battery?

nFV

G R T ln K

G 2 9 6 , 4 8 5 2 .0 4
G 3 9 3 .6 k J

Dendrites are
Good: porous (makes more
Of possible energy available)
Bad: fragile, break and fall
from underlying
electrode
= NO CURRENT

e
No e

PbO

2 ,s o lid

4H

aqueous

SO

2
4 ,a q u e o u s

2e

PbSO

4 ,s o lid

2 H 2O

The type of structure that forms depends upon the rate of crystallization which
Depends upon rate of reaction which depends upon:
Loss/production of products (current)
Which depends also upon the rate constant (potential dependent)

One way to image the various processes described above is by an

Equivalent Circuit

In a simplified system

ext

R
ext

D is c h a rg e

V
R

D is c h a rg e

a p p a r e n t in t e r n a l r e s is ta n c e

D is c h a rg e

t0

Id R

ext

r e m a in in g

R
I

As the battery is discharged the discharge voltage is the

Difference between what we started with and the remaining
Voltage in the battery

D is c h a rg e

t0

IDR

App

app

R
app

Lead acid batteries can be valve regulated to control the pressure associated
With
No pressure

1.29 V

1.38 V

Suggests higher
Degree of interparticle
Contact under pressure

Lower CT resistance
Under pressure

pressurized

Insulating layer which can conduct only protons and lead

Solubility
Diffusion
Et at conducting PbO2

Solubility
Diffusion
Et at conducting PbO2

Modeled effect of diffusion

Solubility
Diffusion
Et at conducting PbO2

Modeled effect of proton conc

Solubility
Diffusion
Et at conducting PbO2

Different magnitude of discharge

Changes the solubility and proton conc
As well as the conductivity of the film

P VDI
P I D R

ext

ext

ext

ext

t0

a p p a r e n t in t e r n a l r e s is ta n c e

app

D is c h a rg e

V
R

app

Id

t0

D is c h a rg e

Based on V. S. Bagotsky text, Fundamentals of Electrochemistry

ext
ext

D is c h a rg e

Id R
V

r e m a in in g

ext

app

R
app

R
ext

D is c h a rg e

t0

IDR

App

2.5

V
0

app

1.2

0.8

0.6
1
0.4
0.5

0.2

0
0

0.5

1.5

Current Density

For the simplified model

2.5

1.5

ext
ext

Monitor structural changes at electrode as a function of the discharge power

Charge transfer resistance

Decreases due formation of more porous PbO2

High charge transfer

Resistance due to insulating
PbSO4 layer

Increasing
Charge transfer
Resistance due
To layer of PbSO4

Small diameter
Of impedance
Circle here indic
The fast et kine
O2 reaction.

Reaction
Li++e
K+ + e
Na+ + e
NCl3_4H+ + 6e
2H2O + 2e
Fe2+ + 2e
Pb2+ + 2e
2H+ + 2e
N2(g) + 8H+ + 6e
Cu2+ + 2e
O2 + 2H2O + 4e
O2 + 2H+ + 2e
Ag+ + e
NO3- + 4H+ + 3e
Br2 + 2e
2NO3- + 12H+ + 10e
Cl2 + 2e
Au+ + e

Li
K
Na
3Cl- + NH4+
H2 + 2OHFe
Pb
H2(gas)
2NH4+
Cu
4OHH2O2
Ag
NO(g) +2H2O
2BrN2(g) +6H2O
2ClAu

Vo
-3.0
-2.95
-2.71
-1.37
-0.828
-0.44
-0.13
0
0.275
0.34
0.40
0.68
0.799
0.957
1.09
1.246
1.36
1.83

7g/mol

207g/mol

Lithium oxidation proceeds a little too

uncontrollably
Lithium reduction does not not result
in good attachment back to the lithium
metal
Forms dendrites which can grow to
Short circuit

1 e L i L iC

Lithium intercalated in graphite is close

to metallic, formal potential differs by
only 0.1 to .3 V = -2.7 to -2.9V

Anode

Solid electroactive metal salt

(Can change overall charge so that it can electrostatically stabilize & localize Li+
Potential should be very positive (far from -2.5 V for Li/C reaction
Solid should conduct charge throughout
Solid should allow ion motion
Should have fast kinetics (open and porous)
Should be stable (does not convert to alleotropes)
Low cost
Environmentally benign

M
M

m
x
m
x
m
x

X
X
X

x
z
x
z
x
z

M
Li

Li

m 1
x

fas t

fa s t

m
x

e
m
x

X
x
z

x
z

Li

Li e

M. Stanley Whittingham, Lithium Batteries and Cathode Materials, Chem. Rev. 2004, 104, 4271-4301

Group II

V 2O
Group I

L iT iS 2
L iN iO

L iV S e 2
2

L iC o O

M oO

Group III
Spinels

M n2O

M. Stanley Whittingham, Lithium Batteries and Cathode Materials, Chem. Rev. 2004, 104, 4271-4301

L iT iS

Smooth galvanostatic curve indicates

That there are no sites nucleating
Alleotropes of the compound.

Single phase
Went to market
Allotropes would alter the structure,
Light weight
In the late 1970s
Porosity, and the ease of intercalation,
Conducting, but not
Potential, and conductivity
Reactive (oxidised or reduced)
Li ion intercalates in response to double layer charging
M. Stanley Whittingham, Lithium Batteries and Cathode Materials, Chem. Rev. 2004, 104, 4271-4301

Indicates various crystal forms

IV

L iV S e 2

L i xV

IV x

IV x

S e 2 1 x L i 1 x e L i V

octahedral
Lithium ion inserts in response
To reduction of vanadium

S e 2 x L i x e L i xV

L iV

III

S e 2 L i e L i2V

II

Se2
III

Se2

Se2

2nd is tetrahedral
Different phases of VSe2 have similar structures
So the distortion is not great
M. Stanley Whittingham, Lithium Batteries and Cathode Materials, Chem. Rev. 2004, 104, 4271-4301

Group II

V 2O

M oO

M. Stanley Whittingham, Lithium Batteries and Cathode Materials, Chem. Rev. 2004, 104, 4271-4301

Major phase changes in LixV2O5

(x<0.01) is well ordered
( 0.35<x<0.7)is more puckered
(x=1) shifting of layers
(x>1) results in permanent structural change
(x>>1) is a rock salt form

Sol gel processes of the V2O5 materials

Group III
Spinels

M n2O

These materials have a major change in

Unit cell dimensions when Mn changes
Oxidation state (see B). Need to keep the
Lattice parameter less than 8.23 A for good
Cycling, which
1. Keeps Mn in higher oxidation state,
therefore
less soluble
2. Prevents distortion in the coordination of
oxygen (Jahn-Teller)
around the manganese. These distortions
will alter the oxidation and
reduction potential as seen in the next slide
M. Stanley Whittingham, Lithium Batteries and Cathode Materials, Chem. Rev. 2004, 104, 4271-4301

M. Stanley Whittingham, Lithium Batteries and Cathode Materials, Chem. Rev. 2004, 104, 4271-4301