Andy Kleinschmidt

Extension Educator
Van Wert County

Don McClure
Soil Scientist
NRCS-USDA

What is Soil?
A logical place to begin today
is with a definition of soil.
Soil: Unconsolidated mineral or
material on the surface of the earth
resulting from and influenced by
time, parent material, climate,
organisms, and topography.
Not all soil is created equal,
the soil vs. a soil.

Why are soils important?

Medium of crop
production

Great integrator

Producer and
absorber of
gases

Snapshot of
geologic,
climatic,
biological, and
human history
Waste decomposer

Medium for
plant
growth

Source material
for construction,
medicine, art, etc.

Home to organisms
(plants, animals and
others)
Essential natural resource

Filter of
water and
wastes

Objectives
Soil color
Soil texture
Soil structure
Soil pH
CEC
Microorganisms
Nutrient movement

What stands out about the landscape?

Soil Color
Color is the most obvious characteristic of soil.
Soil color is influenced by the oxidation state of iron
and manganese.
What are some colors encouraged by well aerated
conditions?

RED

BROWN

YELLOW

What are some colors encouraged by poorly aerated

conditions?

GRAY BLUE

Soil Color, Soil Aeration or Drainage,

and the Oxidation State of Iron
POOR AERATION

GOOD AERATION

1. Iron is reduced

1. Iron is oxidized

2. Fe++

2. Fe+++

3. dull colors (grays,

blue)

3. bright colors
(yellows, browns)

4. poorly drained

4. well drained

Soil Color Tells A Story

Drainage on this farm?

Well
Drained

Poorly
Drained

Soil Horizons
Ap

Zone of highest organic matter content.

The p denotes that this soil has been
plowed.

A layer of accumulation of iron and

clays. Blocky structure is readily seen
in this layer.

Unconsolidated material. Outside the

zone of major biological activity and is
not affected by soil forming processes.

Soil Profile
What do we see?
organic matter - surface soil is
darker due to organic matter
iron oxides - subsoil has
brighter browns and tans due
to iron oxides
drainage
horizons - layers of different
color or texture; formed from
the top down

. . . more on Soil Horizons

Ap
A
B

Mollisol

Alfisol

USDA-NRCS National Soil Survey Center

Average Soil Composition

25% Water

Pore
space
50%

25% Air

45% Inorganic
(mineral materials)

Solids
50%

5% Organic Matter

Soil Texture
Determined by the relative
proportion of sand, silt and clay
Surface Area
Sand
Silt
Clay

Charge

50 cm2/g

none

500 cm2/g

none

5,000,000 cm2/g

negative

Relative Size Comparison

of Soil Particles
barrel
plate
coin
Silt
- feels floury
Sand
- feels gritty
(2.00 - 0.05 mm)

USDA system for determining soil separates

(0.05 - 0.002 mm)

Clay
- feels sticky
(< 0.002 mm)

Coarse
Medium
Fine

Percent
Clay

Clay

Sandy
Clay
Sandy Clay
Loam

Sand

Loamy
Sand

Sandy
Loam

Silty
Clay

Percent
Silt

Clay Silty Clay

Loam
Loam
Loam

Silt Loam

Percent Sand

Silt

Inches water/ft soil

Plant Available Water

4
3
2
1
Sand Sandy Silt Clay Clay
loam loam loam

Available Water Holding Capacity

Texture
Silty clay loam
Clay loam
Silt loam
Silty clay
Sandy loam
Rhoads and Yonts, 1984.

Storage capacity
(in./ft.)
1.8
1.8
2.0
1.6
1.4

Texture and Pore Space

Comparison of Coarse Textured and Fine Textured Soils
Coarse Textured Soil

Less porespace but

more macropores

Fine Textured Soil

More total porespace

Soil Structure
Soil structure is the combination or
arrangement of primary soil particles
into secondary units
The way soil particles are arranged to
form stable aggregates
Compare this to clods, which are
caused by disturbance (plowing or
digging)
Compaction results from implement
traffic, stable soil aggregates are

Common Types of Soil

Structure
Plow layer

Granular
Platy
Prismatic
Columnar
Blocky

Common to Ohio soils just

below Ap (> 8)

Single Grain
Massive

Sand
Deeper in profile (>3-4)

GRANULAR

BLOCKY

A
Granular

E
Platy

B
Blocky

C
Massive

Bulk Density Determination

Soil is made
of solids and
pore spaces

1.33
grams

For our example, lets

assume we have 1 cubic
centimeter of soil that
weighs 1.33 grams

To calculate Bulk Density:

Volume = 1 cm3
Weight = 1.33 grams
Bulk Density =

Weight of Soil
Volume of Soil

Bulk Density =

1.33
1

Bulk Density = 1.33 grams/cm3

Bulk Density (cont.)

Bulk density (g/cm3)
Soil

Cropped

Uncropped

Hagerstown loam (PA)

1.25 (50%)

1.07 (57%)

Marshall silt loam (IA)

1.13 (56%)

0.93 (63%)

Nappanese silt loam (OH)

1.31 (51%)

1.05 (60%)

What impact does this have on pore space?

Data from Lyon et al.

Some Common Bulk

Densities
Uncultivated/undisturbed woodlots
1.0 to 1.2 g/cm3

Cultivated clay and silt loams

1.1 to 1.5 g/cm3

Cultivated sandy loams

1.3 to 1.7 g/cm3

Compacted glacial till

1.9 to 2.2 g/cm3

Concrete
2.4 g/cm3

Bulk Density and Compaction

Depth

Bulk Density (g/cm3)

0 inches

1.43

7 inches
8 inches
9 inches
10 inches

1.90
1.87
1.84
1.80
1.60

Data from Camp and Lund

2.20

Plow layer
Compacted
zone
Uncompacted
subsoil

Till

Influences of Soil Texture,

Soil Structure and Density
1) Water movement
2) Water retention
3) Soil temperature
4) Gas exchange
5) Erosion potential
6) Fertility

Hydrologic Cycle and Soil

Soil properties that are part of the hydrologic cycle.
Moisture

Color
Temperature

Structure
pH
Texture
Horizon
Depths
Bulk
Density

Soil pH - a master variable

A measure of the hydrogen (H+)
ion activity

Acid
(pH=1.0)

Neutral
(pH=7.0)

Alkaline
(pH=14.0)

One pH unit change = a ten fold

change in acidity or alkalinity

Why called master variable?

soil pH controls:
1) soil microbe activity
2) nutrient exchanges
3) nutrient availability
4) gaseous exchanges
5) chemical degradation
6) CEC

pH value

{
{

Range of alkalinity
soils of arid and
semiarid regions
have pH greater
than 8.0

Range of acidity
weathered soils of
the southeastern US
coastal plains
typically have pH
less than 5.0

10.0

Too alkaline
for most plants

9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0

Too acidic for

most plants

Soil pH
1) Methods for soil pH determination can
vary widely
2) Measure of the direct concentration of H +
ions in the soil solution
3) Buffer pH measures both H+ ions in the
soil solution and the reserve H+ ions
bound on cation exchange sites
It is used to express the acidity or
alkalinity of the soil solution, not lime
requirement
4) pH represents the equation -log[H+]

Factors Affecting Soil pH

Parent Soil Material
Precipitation
Nitrogen Applications
Cropping Sequence
Organic Matter Breakdown

Making Acid Rain

acid rain a concern
air has carbon dioxide
(CO2)
atmospheric CO2
gives rain a pH of 5.6
fossil fuels add to acid
rain, but requires only
25 lbs. limestone per
year to neutralize

H2O + CO2
acid)

acid produced by nitrogen applications

H2CO3
(carbonic

Clay Minerals

Clay structure magnified 1,600 times

Clays are layered minerals made of . . .

. . . together they form . . .

Organic Matter

OR

Factors Influencing Organic

Matter Accumulation
1)Topography
2)Native Vegetation
3)Climate
4)Time
5)Organisms

Forest Soil

Soil
Depth
in
Inches

0 Well Drained

12

Soil
Depth
in
Inches

16
20

12
16
20

24

24

28
32

28
32
0 2 4 6 8

Poorly Drained

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Percent Organic Matter in Soil

Prairie vs. Forest Soil

A horizon = 4 inches
A horizon = 14 inches

Prairie

Forest

Effect of Native Vegetation

Importance of Soil Organic Matter

Physical and Chemical Properties
1) Improves physical condition
Allows for good aggregation of soil particles
because of the plant and animal residues in
the surface
2) Increased water infiltration
Allows water saturation by acting as an
absorbent
3) Improves Soil Tilth
Allows for more uniformity of the soil
aggregates in proportion to the plant, animal
and mineral residues present

Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

Ability of a soil to hold and exchange cations
Ions are atoms with an electrical charge

Cations

Anions

Ca2+, Mg2+

SO42-, PO43-

Na+, K+

Cl-, NO3-

Negatively charged colloids (organic matter

and clay) attract and hold cations

CEC of a soil is due to:

1)Organic Matter Content
2)Clay Content
3)Type of Clay
1)Montmorillonite

high CEC

2)Illite

mod. CEC

3)Kaolinite

low CEC

NRCS STATSGO Database

CEC (cont.)
Most soils are negatively charged and
hold cations.
Cations held on exchange sites may
move into the soil solution & be taken
up by roots.
Anions are not held on soil and are
subject to leaching (P is exception).

+-

NS

-+

+-

SN

NS

Like poles
(charges) repel

Na

+-

NS

Opposite poles
(charges) attract

Ca2+

ClNO3-

SOIL
COLLOID

SO42Mg

2+

+
NH
4
+

Another Schematic Look at CEC

50 CEC

Heavy
Clay

CEC
25

Common CEC
Range
K+

Ca2+

2 CEC

CEC
5

Sand

Mg2+
NH4+
Na+
K+
Sand
More Clay, More
Positions to Hold Cations

Clay

Ca2+ K+
Less Clay, Fewer
Positions to Hold
Cations

Some practical applications

Soil CEC 11-50
Higher clay
content
Requires more
lime to correct a
given pH
Greater capacity
to hold nutrients
Higher water
holding capacity

Soil CEC 1-10

Clay content

Lime relationship
Nutrient
relationship
Water Holding
Capacity

Lower clay
content
Requires less
lime to correct a
given pH
Leaching more
likely
Lower water
holding capacity

Microorganisms in the Soil

*

1) Microbes live in small clumps

In fact, less than 1% of the soil surface will
support the growth of microbes
2) Do not migrate much
3) Their goal: maintain species
7,000 different species in one gram of soil!
4.5 x 1016 bacteria/acre, 3 inches deep

Microbes are hungry,

immobile and ready
to reproduce
*

Excludes nonarthropod and arthropod animals, as well as vertebrates

One final thought . . .

What do you notice about this soil core?

macropores

Preferential Flow
Soil
Horizon

Example of
68%
leachable
Initialofstorm
of
pesticide
leaching
atrazine
season. was lost
through
to preferential
preferential
flow.
Notice

flow during the

preferential
flow.
Atrazine
applied.
first
storm.

What are the

implications from
a soil fertility
standpoint?
Calculated from Kladivco, et al. (1999); models from Cornell

Soils
ENJOY THE
REMAINDER OF THE
TRAINING.
WERE GLAD YOU
ARE HERE.