UNIT - III

FORM
MEASUREMENT

Introduction
Form Measurement includes 1. Screw thread measurement
2. Gear measurement
3. Radius measurement
4. Surface Finish measurement
5. Straightness measurement
6. Flatness and roundness measurements.

SCREW Threads
Thread
Helical ridge of uniform section formed on inside
or outside of cylinder or cone

Used for several purposes:

* Fasten devices such as screws, bolts, studs, and
nuts
* Provide accurate measurement, as in micrometer
* Transmit motion
* Increase force
3

Screw Threads
Screw threads are used;
To hold parts together (ex: V-threads)
To transmit motion & power (Square,
Acme threads)

External thread

Internal threads

Different Types of Thread profi

1. Square Threads.
2. V-threads.
3. ACME Threads
4. Buttress Threads
.
5. Whitworth thread
Thread Conventions
s

Square Threads

V- threads

ACME threads

Buttress threads

Whitworth Threads

Thread Forms
ISO Metric
American National Standard Thread
British Standard Whitworth (BSW)
Thread
Unified Thread
American National Acme Thread
Square Thread
Brown & Sharpe Worm Thread
International Metric thread

Multiple Threads
May be double, triple or quadruple,
depending on number of starts around
periphery of work
Pitch: distance from point on one
thread to corresponding point on next
thread
Lead: distance nut advances lengthwise
in one complete revolution
Single-start: pitch and lead equal
Double-start: lead twice the pitch
Triple-start: lead three times pitch

Thread Terminology

Thread Terminology
Screw thread
Helical ridge of uniform section formed
on inside or outside of cylinder or cone

External thread
Cut on external surface or cone

Internal thread
Produced on inside of cylinder or cone

Thread Terminology
Major Diameter
Commonly known as the outside
diameter . On a screw thread, the major
diameter is the largest diameter of the
thread on the screw or nut.

Thread Terminology
Minor Diameter
Called the root diameter, the minor
diameter is the smallest diameter of the
thread on the screw or nut.

Thread Terminology
Pitch
The distance from a given point on
one thread to a corresponding point
on the very next thread

Thread Terminology
Pitch diameter
Diameter of imaginary cylinder that
passes through thread at point where
groove and thread widths are equal
Equal to major diameter minus single
depth of thread
Tolerance and allowances given at
pitch diameter line

Thread Terminology
Lead
The distance a screw thread
advances in one revolution.
The lead and the pitch of a single
lead thread are the same.
On double lead threads, the lead is
twice the pitch.
A double lead thread has two start
points.

Thread Terminology
Root
Bottom surface joining sides of two
adjacent threads
External thread on minor diameter
Internal thread on major diameter

Crest
Top surface joining two sides of thread
External thread on major diameter
Internal thread on minor diameter

Thread Terminology
Flank
Thread surface that connects crest with
root

Depth of thread
Distance between crest and root
measured perpendicular to axis

Thread Terminology
Angle of thread
Included angle between sides of
thread measured in axial plane

Helix angle
Angle that thread makes with plane
perpendicular to thread axis

22

Screw threads Terminology

PITCH: The distance from a point on a screw thread
to a corresponding point on the next thread
measured parallel to the axis.
LEAD: The distance a screw thread advances in one
turn. For a single start threads, lead=pitch,
For double start, lead=2xpitch, & so on.
THREAD FORM: The cross section of thread cut by a
plane containing the axis.
MAJOR DIAMETER: This is the diameter of an
imaginary cylinder, co-axial with the screw, which
just touches the crests of
an external thread or
roots of an internal threads. It is also called as
Nominal diameter.

Screw threads Terminology

Minor diameter: This is the diameter of an
imaginary cylinder, co-axial with the screw which
just touches the roots of an external thread or the
crest of an internal thread. This is also referred to
as root or core diameter.
Effective diameter or Pitch diameter: It is the
diameter of an imaginary cylinder coaxial with the
axis of the thread and intersects the flanks of the
thread such that width of the threads & width of
spaces between threads are equal.
Flank: It is the Thread surface that connects crest
with root.
Depth of thread: It is the distance between crest
and root measured perpendicular to axis of screw.

Screw threads Terminology

Angle of thread: Included angle between sides of
thread measured in axial plane.
Helix angle: Angle that thread makes with plane
perpendicular to thread axis.
Flank angle: It is half the included angle of the
thread.
Addendum: It is the distance between the crest and
the pitch line measured perpendicular to axis of
the screw.
Dedendum: It is the distance between the pitch line
& the root measured perpendicular to axis of the
screw.

Errors in screw threads

There are six important elements in a thread,
errors in any one of which may lead to rejection.
They are Major dia, Minor dia, effective dia, Pitch,
Flank angle and the profile at root & crest.
Errors in screw threads may cause interference with
mating threads or slackness due to improper flank
contact.
Errors in pitch of screw thread may be classified
into four types;
(i) Periodic errors (ii) Progressive errors (iii)
Drunken errors
(iv) Irregular errors

Periodic errors
Periodic errors are those which vary in magnitude
along the length of the thread and occurs at regular
intervals as shown in fig (a).
A drunken thread is a particular case of periodic
error where the error repeats once per turn.
For a true thread, if the thread is imagined to be
unwound from the pitch cylinder, the helix will be a
straight line. For a drunken thread, it will be a curve
as shown in fig (b).
In a drunken thread, the advance of the helix is
irregular in one complete revolution. This is due to
thread being not cut to true helix.

Periodic errors

Max error

Pitch

Cumulative
pitch error

True thread
Drunken
thread

Length of thread
Mean diameter

Fig (a)
PERIODIC ERRORS

Fig (b)
DRUNKEN THREAD

Cumulative pitch error

Cumulative pitch error

(ii) Progressive & (iii) Erratic or

Irregular errors

Length of thread
Length of thread
Fig (c)
PROGRESSIVE ERROR

Fig (d)
ERRATIC ERRORS

Measurement of various elements

of Thread
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Major diameter
Minor diameter
Effective or Pitch diameter
Pitch
Thread angle and form

Measurement of Major
diameter
The instruments which are used to find
the major diameter are,
1. Ordinary micrometer
2. Bench micrometer

Bench Micrometer

BENCH MICROMETER

Measurement of major diameter

Clamp
Fiducial
Indicator

Measuring
Anvils

Supports

Holding centres
Micrometer head

BENCH MICROMETER

Bench Micrometer

A good quality hand held micrometer is quite suitable

for measuring external thread, but only light pressure
has to be applied on the anvils to make only contact on
the screw threads.
Excessive pressure may lead to elastic deformation of
screw threads leading to errors.
A bench micrometer may be used for greater accuracy
which give direct readings of 0.0002 mm.
In order that all measurements be made at the same
pressure, a fiducial indicator is used in place of the
fixed anvil
A standard cylinder of known diameter S (which is
nearly equal to thread diameter) is held between
centers & a reading R1 between the fiducial indicator
anvil & micrometer anvil is taken. The cylinder is then
removed.
Then the screw thread to be measured is held between
centers & a second micrometer reading R 2 is taken.
Then D = S +(difference between R1 and R2)

Holding centre

Measuring anvil

Measuring anvil
Screw Thread

Standard Cylinder

Holding centre

Measurement of Major diameter

Measurement of minor diameter

The principle of minor diameter is same as
that of measuring major diameter except
that v -shaped prisms are used.
Prisms of suitable sizes are placed between
the standard cylinder and the instrument
anvils in order to take a reading first
micrometer reading R1.
The standard cylinder is then replaced by
the screw thread and a second reading R 2 is
taken as shown in fig.
Then the minor diameter Then D = S +
(difference between R1 and R2)

R1
S

R2
Holding centre

Prism

Micrometer anvil

Screw Thread

Prism

Standard Cylinder

Fiducial
indicator
anvil

Measurement of Minor diameter

Measurement of Flank angle

10
20

Screw

Protractor arm

10
20

Pivot

Shadow Protractor

Protractor

Shadow protractor
Shadow protractor
is most convenient method for
measurement of flank angles using optical projection.
The shadow of the thread is viewed on a screen and the
angles are measured by means of a protractor.
For clear definition of a thread form on the screen it is
necessary to project the light beam along the thread
helix angle by using a lamp & collimating unit.
The protractor is supported at the screen on a straight
edge. The pivoted arm of the protractor is rotated until its
shadow is parallel to the flank & the first reading is taken.
The screw is then rotated 90o to its axis and the
protractor is swung about its pivot and adjusted to
measure the angle of the same flank and a second
reading is taken.
The mean of the two readings is then the angle between
the flank & normal to the screw axis.

Measurement of effective
diameter

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

One-wire method
By Floating Carriage
Two-wire method
Micrometer
Three-wire method
Thread ring gage
Thread plug gage
Thread snap gage
Screw thread micrometer
Optical comparator
41

Measurement of effective diameter

by Two wire method
MEASUREMENT BY TWO WIRE METHOD

E M

Dia 'd'
P

Pitch line

E
G

43

44

Measurement of effective diameter

using two wire method

The effective diameter can not be measured directly

but can be calculated from the measurements made.
Wires of exactly known diameters are chosen such that
they contact the flanks at their straight portions.
If the size of the wire is such it contacts the flanks at
the pitch line, it is called the best size of wire which
can be determined by geometry of screw thread.
The screw thread is mounted between the centers &
wires are placed in the grooves and reading M is taken.
Then the effective diameter E =T+C
where T =M-2d, & C is a value which depends on
diameter of wire, pitch & angle of the screw thread.

Effective diameter by three wire method

M
Dia 'd'
P

pitch
line

A
h

D
E

Three-Wire Measuring
Three wires of equal diameter
placed in thread, two on one side
and one on other side
Standard micrometer used to
measure distance over wires (M)
Different sizes and pitches of
threads require different sizes of
wires

The Three-Wire Method of

Measuring 60 Threads

Effective diameter by three

wire method
This method is more accurate than two wire
method as it ensures alignment of micrometer
faces parallel to the thread axis.
Here, three wires of exactly known diameters are
used, one on one side & the two on the other
side. The wires may be held in hand or hung from
a stand.
From the fig, M=diameter over the wires
E= effective diameter (to be found)
d= diameter of wires, h=height of wire center
above the pitch line, r=radius of wire, H=depth of
thread, D=major diameter of the thread.

Effective diameter by three

wire method d
From the triangle ABD , AD AB cosec

cosec

H P

cot
2 4
2
P

d
Further h ( AD CD ) cosec cot
2 4
2
2
Distance over the wires, M E 2h 2r
H DE cot

cot
2 2
2

and CD

i.e. M E 2 rcosec cot 2r E 2r 1 cosec cot

2 4
2
2
2
2

Or M E d 1 cosec cot
2
2
2

For Whitworth thread, 55o , depth of thread 0.64P

E D - 0.64P, cosec 2.1657, and cot 1.921

2
2
M D 3.1657d 1.605P where D is the major diameter of the thread.
For Metric threads, Depth of thread 0.6495P

o
E D 0.6495P, 60 , cos ec 2, cot 1.732
2
2
M D 3d 1.5155P
We can measure the value of M practically & then
compare with the theoretical values using formulae derived above.
After finding the correct value of M, as d is known, E can be found out.

Expression for Best size Wire

P/4
P

Pitch line
B

P/2

BEST SIZE OF WIRE

Expression for Best size Wire

The best size wire is the one which makes contact at the pitch line
or effective diameter of the screw thread. In other words, as shown in fig OB
is perpendicular to flank portion of the thread at the pitch line.
AB

AB

In the triangle OAB, Sin B O A

, or sin 90 -
OB
2
OB

AB
AB

OB

AB sec .

cos
sin 90 -
2
2

1
But OB radius of wire dia of best size wire (D b )
2

P
i.e. D b 2 OB 2 AB sec . Also since AB lies on the pitch line, AB
2
4
where P is the pitch of the thread.
P
P

D b 2 sec sec
4
2 2
2

Pitch Measurement method

1. Pitch measuring machine
2. Tool makers microscope
3. Screw pitch gauge

Pitch Measuring machine

Fiducial
indicator
Base

Pointer K

Pointer T
Spring loaded head
stylus

centers

Screw thread
Carriage

Micrometer

Pitch Measuring machine

For measuring pitch, two methods are commonly employed as

follows;
(a) Using pitch measuring machine
(b) Using Toolmakers microscope
In a pitch measuring machine, the screw thread is mounted
between the centers of the machine. A stylus inserted into a
spring loaded head makes contact at the thread flanks near
the pitch line.
The spring loaded head permits the stylus to move up the
flank of the thread & down into the next space as it is moved
parallel to the axis.
Accurate positioning of the stylus between the two flanks is
ensured by keeping the pointer T is always opposite to its
index mark while taking readings.

Pitch Measuring machine (contd)

With the micrometer reading zero on the scale, the
indicator is moved along to bring the stylus opposite
to the first thread space and is clamped in position.
The indicator is then adjusted radially until the
stylus engages between the thread flanks and the
pointer K is opposite to the line mark.
When the pointer is accurately in position, the
micrometer reading is noted.
The stylus is then moved along into the next thread
space, by rotation of micrometer and a second
reading is taken.
The difference between the two readings gives the
pitch of the thread.

Toolmakers microscope
Eye piece

Optical head

Column

work table
with carriage
Hollow base
Lamp
Collimator lens
Mirror

Base

Toolmakers microscope
Toolmakers microscope is based on the principle of
optics. It consists of a heavy hollow base
accommodating the illuminating unit.
On the top surface of the base, the work table carriage
is supported and its movement is controlled by
micrometer screws.
The column carries the microscope unit & various
interchangeable eye pieces.
Light from the lamp is collimated and reflected as
parallel beam by the mirror.
On its way up this beam collects the image of the object
to be inspected and this enters the microscopes
eyepiece.
A shadow image of the part passes through the
objective of the optical head and is projected to a glass
screen.

Toolmakers microscope
Cross lines are engraved on the ground glass screen
which can be rotated through 360o and
measurements are made by these cross lines.
Different types of graduated screens and engraved
screens are used for measuring different elements.
For ex, a revolving screen for measurement of screw
threads will contain all the basic profiles standard
threads in various pitch ranges & included angles.
Screw thread parameters such as pitch, flank angle,
depth of thread,etc. may be measured by matching
the projected image of the thread with the master
profile obtained from a standard thread.

TOOLMAKERS MICROSCOPE

TOOLMAKERS MICROSCOPE

ROUNDNESS MEASURING
MACHINE

GEARS

64

Introduction
Gears is a mechanical drive which transmits power
through toothed wheel.
In this gear drive, the driving wheel is in direct
contact with driven wheel.
The accuracy of gearing is the very important factor
when gears are manufactured.
The transmission efficiency is almost 99 in gears.
So it is very important to test and measure the
gears precisely.
For proper inspection of gear, it is very important to
concentrate on the raw materials, which are used to
manufacture the gears, also very important to
check the machining the blanks, heat treatment
and the finishing of teeth.

The most commonly used forms of gear

teeth are
1.. Involute
2. Cycloidal
The involute gears also called as straight
tooth or spur gears.
The cycloidal gears are used in heavy
and impact loads.
The involute rack has straight teeth.
The involute pressure angle is either 20
or 14.5.

Types of gears
1. Spur gear: Cylindrical gear whose tooth traces is straight
line.
These are used for transmitting power between
parallel shafts.
2. Spiral gear: The tooth of the gear traces curved lines.
3. Helical gears: These gears used to transmit the power between
parallel shafts as well as nonparallel and nonintersecting shafts.
It is a cylindrical gear whose tooth traces is
straight line.
line

4. Bevel gears:
The tooth traces are straight-line generators
of cone.
The teeth are cut on the conical surface. It is
used to connect the shafts at right angles.
5. Worm and Worm wheel:
It is used to connect the shafts whose axes
are non parallel and non-intersecting.
6. Rack and Pinion:
Rack gears are straight spur gears with
infinite radius

Gear terminology

Gear terminology
1. Tooth profile:
It is the shape of any side of gear tooth in its cross section.
2. Base circle:
It is the circle of gear from which the involute profile is
derived.
Base circle diameter Pitch circle diameter x Cosine of
pressure angle of gear
3. Pitch circle diameter (PCD):
The diameter of a circle which will produce the same
motion as the toothed gear wheel.
4. Pitch circle:
It is the imaginary circle of gear that rolls without slipping
over the circle of its mating gear.

5. Addendum circle:
The circle coincides with the crests (or) tops of teeth.
6. Dedendum circle (or) Root circle:
This circle coincides with the roots (or) bottom on
teeth.
7.Pressure angle (a):
It is the angle making by the line of action with the
common tangent to the pitch circles of mating gears.
8.Module(m):
It is the ratio of pitch circle diameter to the total
number of teeth

9. Circular pitch:
It is the distance along the pitch circle between
corresponding points of adjacent teeth.
10. Addendum:
Radial distance between tip circle and pitch circle.
Addendum value = 1 module.
11 Dedendum:
Radial distance between itch circle and root circle,
Dedendum value = 1 .25module.
12,. Clearance (C):
A mount of distance made by the tip of one gear with the
root of mating gear.
Clearance = Difference between Dedendum and addendum
values.
13 Blank diameter:
The diameter of the blank from which gear is out. Blank
diameter = PCD + 2m

14. Face:
Part of the tooth in the axial plane lying
between tip circle and pitch circle.
15. Flank:
Part of the tooth lying between pitch circle and
root circle.
16. Top land:
Top surface of a tooth.
17. Helix angle:

18. Lead angle:

The angle between the tangent to the helix and plane
perpendicular to the axis of cylinder.
19. Backlash:
The difference between the tooth thickness and the space
into which it meshes.
If we assume the tooth thickness as t and width t then

Gear errors
1. Profile error: - The maximum distance of any
point on the tooth profile form to the design
profile.
2. Pitch error: - Difference between actual and
design pitch
3. Cyclic error: - Error occurs in each revolution of
gear
4. Run out: - Total range of reading of a fixed
indicator with the contact points applied to a
surface rotated, without axial movement, about
a fixed axis.
5. Eccentricity: - Half the radial run out.

6. Wobble: - Run out measured parallel to. the

axis of rotation at a specified distance
from the axis
7. Radial run out: - Run out measured along a
perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
8. Undulation: - Periodical departure of the
actual tooth surface from the design surface.
9. Axial run out: - Run out measured parallel to
the axis of rotation at a speed.
10. Periodic error: -Error occurring at regular
intervals.

GEAR MEASUREMENT
The Inspection of the gears consists of determine
the following elements in which manufacturing error
may be present.
1. Runout.
2. Pitch
3. Profile
4. Lead
5. Back lash
6. Tooth thickness
7. Concentricity
8. Alignment

1. Runout:
It means eccentricity in the pitch circle.
It will give periodic vibration during each
revolution of the gear.
This will give the tooth failure in gears.
The run out is measured by means of eccentricity
testers.
In the testing the gears are placed in the mandrel
and the dial indicator of the tester possesses
special tip depending upon the module of the
gear and the tips inserted between the tooth
spaces and the gears are rotated tooth by tooth
and the variation is noted from the dial! indicator.

2. Pitch measurement:
There are two ways for measuring the
pitch.
1. Point to point measurement (i.e.
One tooth point to next toot point)
2. Direct angular measurement.

1. Tooth to Tooth
measurement:

 The instrument has three tips.

One is fixed measuring tip and the
second is sensitive tip, whose position
can be adjusted by a screw and the third
tip is adjustable or guide stop.
The distance between the fixed and
sensitive tip is equivalent to base pitch
of the gear.
All the three tips are contact the tooth by
setting the instrument and the reading
on the dial indicator is the error in the
base pitch.

2. Direct Angular
Measurement:
Simplest method for measuring the error by
using set dial gauge against a tooth.
in this method the position of a suitable
point on a tooth is measured after the gear
has been indexed by a suitable angle
If the gear is not indexed through the
angular pitch the reading differs from the
original reading.
The difference between these is the
cumulative pitch error

3. Profile checking:
The methods used for profile checking is
1. Optical projection method.
2. Involute measuring machine.
1. Optical projection method:
The profile of the gear projected on the
screen by optical lens and then projected
value is compared with master profile

2. Involute measuring
machine

 In this method the gear is held on a

mandrel and circular disc of same diameter
as the base circle of gear for the
measurement is fixed on the mandrel.
After fixing the gear in the mandrel. The
straight edge of the instrument is brought
in contact with the base circle of he disc.
Now, the gear and disc are rotated and the
edge moves over the disc without sleep.
The stylus moves over the tooth profile and
the error is indicated on the dial gauge.

3.Lead checking
It is checked by lead checking
instruments.
Actually lead is the axial advance of
a helix for one complete turn.
The lead checking instruments are
advances a probe along a tooth
surface, parallel to the axis when the
gear rotates.

4. Backlash checking
Backlash is the distance through which a
gear can be rotated to bring its nonworking
flank in contact with the teeth of mating
gear.
Numerical values of backlash are measured
at the tightest point of mesh on the pitch
circle.
There are two types of backlash
1. Circumferential backlash
2. Normal backlash

 The determination of backlash is, first

one of the two gears of the pair is
locked, while other is rotated forward
and backward and by the comparator
the maximum displacement i-s
measured.
The stylus of comparator is locked near
the reference cylinder and a tangent to
this is called circular backlash

5. Tooth thickness
measurement

Tooth thickness are generally measured at pitch circle

and also in most cases the chordal thickness
measurement is carried out i.e. the chord joining the
intersection of the tooth profile with the pitch circle.
The methods which are used for measuring the gear
tooth thickness is
a) Gear tooth vernier caliper method (Chordal thickness
method)
b) Base tangent method by David brown tangent
comparator
c) Constant chord method.
d) Measurement over pins or balls

a) Gear tooth vernier

method

b) Measurement over
Rolls or balls
A very good and convenient method
for measuring thickness of gear.
In this method two or three different
size rollers are used for checkup the
vibrations at several places on the
tooth.

6. Measurement of
concentricity
In setting of gears the centre about which the
gear is mounded should be coincident with
the centre from which the gear is generated.
It is easy to check the concentricity of the
gear by mounting the gear between centre's
and measuring the variation in height of a
roller placed between the successive teeth.
Finally the variation in reading will be a
function of the eccentricity present

7. Alignment checking
It is done by placing a parallel bar
between the gear teeth and the gear
being mounted between centre's.
Finally the readings are taken at the
two ends of the bar and difference in
reading is the misalignment.

PARKINSON GEAR
TESTER

 Limitations of Parkinson gear tester

1. Accuracy0.001mm
2. Maximum gear diameter is 300mm
3. Errors are not clearly identified:
4. Measurement dependent upon the
master gear.
5. Low friction in the movement of the
floating carriage

MEASUREMENT OF
SURFACE FINISH

TEXTURE OF SURFACE

Methods of measuring surface

finish
The methods used for measuring the surface finish is
classified into

1. Inspection by comparison

Inspection by comparison methods:

2. Direct Instrument Measurements
The various methods which are used for comparison are
1. Touch Inspection.
2. Visual Inspection.
3. Microscopic Inspection.
4. Scratch Inspection.
5. Micro Interferometer.
6. Surface photographs.
7. Reflected Light Intensity.
8. Wallace surface Dynamometer.

Direct instrument measurements

Some of the direct measurement instruments
are
1. Stylus probe instruments.
2. Tomlinson surface meter.
3. Profilometer.
4. Taylor-Hobson Talysurf

Stylus Probe Instruments

The Tomlinson Surface

Meter.

Schematic Layout of Talysurf.

Information to be given in the Statements of Surface

Roughness.

Pneumatic Methods of Evaluating Surface Finish.

Tracer Type Profilogram.

Profilometer

Double microscope.

STRAIGHTNESS MEASUREM
STRAIGHTNESS
A line is said to be straight over a given length, if the variation of the
distance of its from two planes perpendicular to each other and parallel
to the general direction of the line remains within the specified
tolerance limits.

Test for straightness by using spirit level and Autocollimator

FLATNESS TESTING

FLATNESS TESTING

FLATNESS TESTING

ROUNDNESS MEASUREMENTS
Roundness
Roundness is defined as a condition of a surface of revolution.
Where all points of the surface intersected by any plane
perpendicular to a common axis in case of cylinder and cone.
Devices used for measurement of roundness

1) Diametral gauge.
2) Circumferential confining gauge => a shaft
is confined in a ring gauge
and rotated against a set indicator probe.
3) Rotating on center
4) V-Block
5) Three-point probe.
6) Accurate spindle.

Reference circles

Circumferential confining
gauge

V BLOCK METHOD

Three Point Probe

Rotating table