Liberal

Democracy
&
The Global
Recession
of Democracy

Themes

I. Electoral Democracy
II. Liberal Democracy
III.The Quality of
Democracy
IV.The Trends in
Democracy

What is Electoral
Democracy?
A system of government at the level
of the nation-state
A means for the people (with equal
political rights as citizens) to choose
their political leaders and (if they
wish) to replace their leaders in
regular, meaningful, free, and fair
elections

Liberal (High-Quality)
Democracy
1.Democracy: Majority rule
Popular sovereignty and control over
government
Competition, participation, vertical
accountability, responsiveness

2.Liberal government:
Minority rights
Freedom, Equality, Civic Culture

3.Republican government:

Good Governance

COMPONENTS of Liberal (or

High-Quality) Democracy
1. Liberty: Extensive freedoms of:

Speech
Press (print and broadcast)
Association
Assembly, and peaceful protest
Movement
Thought and belief
Religion & religious practice
Language, identity, cultural expression
Torture
Warrantless search and seizure
Corrupt demands and impositions
Violence and coercion by state and non-state actors

Liberal Democracy 2:
Rule of Law

Protects rights of citizens, maintains

order, & limits power of government
All citizens are equal under the
law
No arbitrary arrest, exile, or
imprisonment
No one is above the law
Government power is limited; no
official may violate these legal and

Rule of Law, continuation.

Right to know the charges

against you, presumption
of innocence
Right to a fair, speedy, and
public trial by an impartial
court
No one may be taxed or
prosecuted except by a law

Liberal Democracy 3: Horizontal

Accountability

Power is separated and

dispersed among multiple,
independent branches and
institutions of government
(checks & balances)
Executive power is limited,
constrained and scrutinized

Horizontal Accountability, cont.

Independent institutions
to monitor & control
corruption & abuse of power
Counter-corruption commission
Ombudsman (public complaints
comm)
Parliamentary investigative
committees
Supreme audit agency (GAO)

Liberal Democracy 4: Civilian

Control of the Military, Police, and
Intelligence

Armed forces are directed

by and subordinate to
civilian elected officials and
their appointees
Elected, civilian commander
in chief
Top military command

Civilian Control of the Security

Sector, cont.

Budgets of armed forces,

intelligence and other state
security agencies are reviewed,
understood, and approved by
civilian executive and legislative
authorities
Professional civilian
capacity in defense ministry,
presidential (or PM) office, and

Civilian Control of the Security

Sector, cont.

Armed forces and intelligence

agencies may not operate
domestically except under
extraordinary & explicit
constitutional circumstances,
with close civilian supervision
Armed forces are non-partisan,
non-political
Police are professional,
depoliticized, and supervised

Liberal Democracy 5, Competitiveness

At least two political parties

with significant representation
in parliament and a
meaningful chance to win
control of national
government
Low barriers to entry of new
political parties
No gerrymandering of
electoral districts
(independent commission)

Competitiveness, cont.
Limited or no use of government
resources to reelect ruling party
Virtually no vote buying or other
electoral fraud
Balanced access to party and
campaign finance
Public funding of parties and campaigns?
Public guarantees of TV & radio air time?
Limits on campaign expenditures?

Over time, electoral alternation

Liberal Democracy 6, Civic

Pluralism

Numerous NGOs and interest groups

represent a broad range of interests
and values in society
NGOs and think tanks monitor the
political process, expose abuses,
and lobby for political reform
Alternative sources of
information: public has access to
a variety of sources of information in
the mass media, independent of
government control.
Very limited government ownership

Liberal Democracy 7, Vertical

Accountability
The people hold their agents (public
officials) accountable to them
Type 1: Electoral Accountability

Party system is sufficiently

competitive,
Competition is sufficiently fair,
Voters are sufficiently informed
and aware of their interests,

So that elected officeholders can be

periodically held accountable, and
removed for bad performance

Vertical Accountability, cont.

Type 2: Societal
Accountability
Civil society is sufficiently
pluralistic, resourceful, and
independent of government,
Mass media are sufficiently
independent and professional,
Public is sufficiently vigilant and
mobilized,

Liberal Democracy 8:
Participation
Citizens take an active role in
politics & the making of public
policies and decisions
High rates of voter turnout
Extensive public interest in and
awareness of major issues, government
conduct, & party positions on issues
High membership rates & active
participation in civil society
organizations (CSOs)

Liberal Democracy 9:
Equality

Citizens have relatively equal

political resources, at least in
education, organization, and
citizenship rights
Women have substantial
representation (ideally, one-half)
in the cabinet, parliament, and
other representative bodies
Economic inequalities are not so

Equality, cont.

Ethnic minorities have

representation in parliament, &
provincial & local legislatures,
in rough proportion to their
shares of the population
All citizens are treated equally
by government agencies and
institutions (including the
judiciary), regardless of their

Liberal Democracy 10:

Responsiveness
Government Responds to
Citizen Demands and
Preferences
Government changes its policies in
response to clear, consistent, and
fairly deliberated expressions of
majority preference
There is substantial correlation
over time between government

Responsiveness, cont.

Aggrieved groups of
citizens are able to win
redress of wrongs and
abuses committed by
government
Significant manifestations
of citizen interest and
protest are able to have

Liberal Democracy 11, Civic

Culture
Competing parties and groups are:

Tolerant of opposing views

& groups
Law-abiding, & respectful
of the constitution
Peaceful, and rejecting of
violence
Willing to compromise
Unwilling to coalesce with

Civic Culture, cont.

The vast majority of citizens & groups

Believe in the legitimacy of

democracy
Are loyal to the constitutional
system
Know their rights & obligations
as citizens
Respect the outcome of
elections
Question but respect authority

Liberal Democracy 12:

State Effectiveness
The state has legitimate authority:
It is widely viewed as having the right
to make and enforce laws, exercise a
monopoly of force, and extract and
distribute resources
The state has administrative
capacity: A professional,
meritocratic, honest, and politically
neutral bureaucracy is able to

The Dimensions of Democratic

Quality
Dimension

Type

Measures

1.

State Effectiveness

Good Governance

Government Effectiveness (WB)

Regulatory Quality (WB)

2.

Rule of Law

Good Governance

Rule of Law (WB)

3.

Horizontal Accountability/
Corruption Control

Good Governance

Control of Corruption (WB)

Corruption Perceptions Index (TI)

4.

Competition

Democratic Procedure

Political Rights (FH)

Voice and Accountability (WB)

5.

Participation

Democratic Procedure

Political Rights (FH)

Voter Turnout Rates

6.

Vertical Accountability

Democratic Procedure

Political Rights (FH)

Voice and Accountability (WB)

Democratic Content

Political Rights (FH)

Civil Liberties (FH)
Voice and Accountability (WB)

7.

Freedom

8.

Equality

Democratic Content

Political Rights (FH)

Civil Liberties (FH)
Gini Coefficient

9.

Responsiveness

Democratic Results

Public Opinion Surveys

Expansion
and
Recession of
Democracy
1974-2012

The Democratic BoomThe Third

Wave of Democratization
In 1974, less than a third of all states were
democracies
By 1984, there were 59 democracies (36%)
By 1990 there were 76 (46%)
Then the Berlin Wall came crashing down:

1991: 88 democracies (48%)

1995: 112 democracies (58%)
1999: 118 democracies (61.5%)

The Global Expansion of Democracy,

1974-2012
Electoral Democracies

Liberal Democracies

75.0%

65.0%

62.5%
58.1%

59.9%

60.0%

55.0%
45.7 %

45.0%

41.1%
37 .0%

35.9%

33.5%

35.0%

33.0%
30.5%

29.1%
26.1%

25.0%

23.6%
20.9%

15.0%

Year

45.6%

Expansion of Liberal
Democracy
About two-thirds of the worlds
democracies (77) are reasonably highquality or liberal:
electoral competition is
institutionalized, fair, and open,
civil liberties are better protected,
there is a rule of law
there are low levels of political

The Globalization of Democracy

During this period,

democracy became a
global phenomenon.
Today:
28 of 33 Latin Am states are
democracies (85%)
17 of 29 in Eastern Europe and FSU
(59%)
10 of 25 in Asia (40%) +(10 of 12

Democracy by Region,
January 2013
100

100

90

85

80

75

70
% of total
60

Democracy

50
Liberal
Democracy

40
30
20
10
0

100

Eur/Anglo

67

LAC

63 43

EE+FSU

38 21

Asia

83

37

22

Pacific Is. SS Africa

21

MENA

Global Trends in Freedom, 1974-2012

World

Developing World

1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.64

3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0

4.47
5.05

4.31

4.24

4.84

4.7 6

3.85
4.35

4.08

5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0

Year

3.48
3.89

3.22

3.30

3.61

3.7 0

3.31

3.69

Regional Trends in Freedom,

1974-2012
CEE

LAC

Asia-Pacific

SS Africa

FSU

CEE

1.0
1.5

1.94

2.0

2.37
2.42

2.62

2.5

2.39

3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5

3.7 0

3.51
3.81

3.86

4.42

4.19
4.50

4.44

4.41

5.28
5.45

5.32
5.36

5.17

5.16
5.17

5.50

6.19
6.50

7.0

Year

The Democratic Recession

The expansion of democracy peaked
in 2005 at 62.5% of all states. Since
then it has declined from 120 to 117
democracies.
No significant gain in number of
democracies in seven years
Seven consecutive years of declining
freedom scores, losses outpacing
gains.

Democratic Recession cont.

The rate of democratic breakdown
since 1999 has been nearly twice the
pace of the preceding 12 years.
30 breakdowns or reversals of
democracy since 1999 (More than
half of the total during the third
wave).
These have come in some large
strategic states:
Pakistan, Russia, Nigeria, Venezuela,

Ratio of Declines to Gains in Freedom, 1991-2012

3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0

Year

Breakdowns of Democracy (examples)

Type of
Breakdown

Breakdown
with
subsequent
return to
democracy

Number of
Such
Breakdowns

29

Percent of all
Democracies
(171) during
Third Wave

17.0%

Countries with dates of

democratic breakdown
and renewal
India (1975, 1977)
Turkey (1980, 1983)
Ghana (1981, 2000)
Nigeria (1983, 1999)
Fiji (1987, 1997)
Thailand (1991,1993)
Peru (1992, 2001)
Lesotho (1994, 2002)
Zambia (1996, 2001)
Bangladesh (2007, 2008)
Philippines (2007, 2010)
Thailand (2006, 2011)
Niger (2009, 2011)
Georgia (2008, 2012)

Breakdowns of Democracy,
examples

Type of
Breakdown

Breakdown
with no
return to
democracy
by 2011

Number of Percent of all

Such
Democracies
Break(171) during
downs
Third Wave

27

15.8%

56

32.7%

Countries with dates of democratic

breakdown and renewal

Lebanon (1975)
Sudan (1989)
The Gambia (1994) Pakistan (1999)
Fiji (2000)
Kyrgyzstan (1998)
Russia (2000)
Nepal (2002)
Nigeria (2003)
Venezuela (2005)
Kenya (2007)
Mauritania (2008)
Honduras (2009)
Madagascar (2009)
Mozambique (2009) Haiti (2010)
Burundi (2010)
Sri Lanka (2010)
Guinea Bissau (2010) Nicaragua (2011)
Mali (2012)
Maldives (2012)

Rate of Democratic Breakdown

1974-2011
35%
30%
25%
19.86%

20%
15%
10%
5%
0%

16.00%

11.7 2%

T im e Period

31.95%

Freedom before Democratic

Breakdowns 1999-2011
Political Rights
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7 .0

Civil Liberties

Other Worrisome Trends

Authoritarian
backlash against
civil society
Fiscal disarray
(weakening of
democracy?) in the

Why Democracy is in

DANGER?

1.Weak Rule of Law

Corruption, abuse of power

Abuse of individual rights,
impunity
Violence, criminality,
lawlessness

2. Executive abuse of
power; weak constraints

3. Ethnic & religious

divisions
4. Weak & Ineffective
Political Institutions
(parties, parliaments,
systems of horizontal
accountability)
5. Poor Economic

Trends In Political Rights, ROL, and

Civil Liberties in Africa, 2005-2011
0.60

0.550.54
0.50
0.50

0.54
0.51

0.54

0.53

0.52

0.50

0.51

0.49
0.47

0.51
0.48

0.46

0.45
0.42

0.41

0.41

0.40

0.40

0.39

0.38

0.38

2010

2011

0.35

0.30
2005

2006

2007

Political/Electoral Rights

2008

2009

Transparency/Rule of Law

Civil Liberties