What is network

Active communication between two or more

computers
May be located in same room or around the world
LAN, WAN, Internet

Functions of Network
Communication
Sharing of hardware
Data sharing
Application sharing

Network models
Peer-to-peer
Decentralized
Cheaper and easier to implement

Each workstation controls access to its

ocal recourses
Use for small office/home network
Benefit : cost , Easy of installation
Disadvantage : security

Client / Server

Centralized

More expensive and required skilled

mplementation
Access to resources controlled by server
Scales very well
Use for larger networks
Advantage: Centralized management and

security

Disadvantage: High Cost, Administration

requirements

Network Models

Data storage, resource access,

processing power dedicated to
server Clients are connected to
server (mainframe)

Each system handles its

own data storage,
resource access,
processing Workstations

Hybrid
Client / Server
Processing occurs on workstations
and server
Security handled by server
Data storage on server with possible
local copies

Centralized

Distributed

LAN, WAN, MAN

Local Area Network
campus

Usually confined to small area building,

Used for local resource sharing files,

printers
May connect to other networks

Wide Area Network

Spans multiple locations over distance
Connect multiple LANs into a single
network

Metropolitan Area Network

Technically a WAN
Geographically restricted to a campus or
city

Topologies
Bus, Ring, Star, Mesh

Bus: Requires terminators, All systems connect to

single backbone with T connectors

Star

All computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub
is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.

Ring

It forms a ring as each computers connected to another

computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly
two neighbor for each device.

Mesh
Each system has a point to point connection with every other system

7 Layers of OSI Model

When were OSI
model developed
and why its
standard called
802.XX and so on?
OSI model was
developed in
February1980 that
why these also
known as 802.XX
Standard (Notice 80
means ==> 1980,
2means ==>
February)

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from

one process to another.

The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets

from the source host to the destination host.

The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to
the next.

The physical layer is responsiblefor the movement of individual bits from one
hop (node) to the next.

The Postal Analogy

How would the OSI compare to the regular Post Office
Application

A- Write a 20 page letter to a foreign country.

Presentation

P- Translate the letter so the receiver can read it.

Session

S- Insure the intended recipient can receive letter.

Transport

Network

Data-Link

Physical

T- Separate and number pages. Like registered mail,

tracks delivery and requests another package if one is
lost or damaged in the mail.
N- Postal Center sorting letters by zip code to route
them closer to destination.
D- Local Post Office determining which vehicles to
deliver letters.
P- Physical Trucks, Planes, Rail, autos, etc which
carry letter between stations.

Basic of TCP/IP
IP address, Subnet mask, default gateway, Domain
name
system (DNS)
IP Address
Identifies the computer to the network
Required for TCP/IP communication
Must be unique on the network
Must not be chosen at random
Must be assigned by the administrator
What are the differences between static ip addressing and dynamic ip addressing?
With static IP addressing, a computer (or other device) is configured to always use the same
IP address. With dynamic addressing, the IP address can change periodically and is managed
by a centralized network service

What is IP?
It's a unique 32 bits software address of a node in a network.
What is private IP?
Three ranges of IP addresses have been reserved for private address and they are not valid for use on the
Internet. If you want to access internet with these address you must have to use proxy server.
If you do decide to implement a private IP address range, you can use IP addresses from any of the
following classes:
What are the functions of a network administrator?

Class A 10.0.0.0

10.255.255.255

Class B 172.16.0.0

172.31.255.255

installation of a network,

Class C 192.168.0.0

192.168.255.255

configuration of network settings, and

A network administrator has many responsibilities that

can be summarize into 3 key functions:

maintenance/troubleshooting of networks.

Network Devices

Cables and Connectors

UnderStanding Switch
Receives messages form any device connected to it and then transmit the
message to that device for which the message was sent (in form of frame)
Unlike when hub receives data on any port then it transmit data to all the
connected devices. Only the device keep the message for which the message
was sent and other drops the messages thats why congestion (blocking)
happens

A Few benefits
High speed data exchange
Full duplex communication
Low Latency
Dedicated Comunication between devices

Class A , B , C Networks

Parameter

Function

Subnet mask

Indicates which Internet Protocol (IP) address bits identify the network
and which identify the host
Required for TCP/IP communication

Default gateway

Identifies the router that the computer should use to access other
networks

DNS server addresses

Identifies the DNS servers that the client will use to resolve host and
domain names into IP addresses

What is subneting ?

Method of dividing a network in to two or more networks

is called subnetting.

Understanding
routing
A router is a system connected to two or more networks that
forwards packets from one network to another.
Routers operate at the network layer of the Open System
Interconnection (OSI) reference model
Routers can connect networks running different data-link layer
protocols and different network media
Large internetworks often have redundant routers, providing
multiple routers to a destination
Routers select the most efficient route to each destination

What Is a TCP/IP Routing

Table?
A routing table is used by TCP/IP network routers
to calculate the destinations of messages it is
responsible for forwarding. The table is a small inmemory database managed by the router's built-in
hardware and software.

Direct and Indirect Routes

Direct route. The route taken when a computer running
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
transmits a packet to a destination on the local network

Indirect route. The route taken when a computer running TCP/IP

transmits a packet to a destination on another network by
forwarding the packet to a router on the local network

Redundant Router

Routing Table Entries for a Router

A routing table on a router is complex because it

contains
Entries for all of the networks that the router is
attached to
Entries provided manually by administrators or
dynamically by routing protocols

Selecting a Table Entry

Network Security (Firewall)

A firewall is a device (sometimes it could be a system) that prevents unauthorized access to a network from external sources. For example, any network
that is connected directly to the Internet need some kind of firewall to protect
the entire network from potential intrusions from the Internet.

A "Firewall" may be implemented using

Packet filtering

or

Access Control Lists (ACLs)

DMZ
Packet Filtering is the ability of a router or a firewall to discard
packets that dont meet certain criteria. A packet filtering router
should be able to filter IP packets based on the following four
fields:
Source IP address
Destination IP address
TCP/UDP source port
TCP/UDP destination port
Filtering is used to:
Allow/block
Allow/block
Allow/block
Allow/block

connections from specific hosts or networks

connections to specific hosts or networks
connections to specific ports
connections from specific ports

Access Control List (ACLs):

ACL is similar to packet filtering.

The Demilitarized Zone (DMZ):

DMZ is used by most of the firewalls,
which is a network segment that is
neither public nor local, but halfway
between. A standard DMZ setup has
three network cards in the firewall
computer. The first goes the Internet,
the second goes to the network
segment and the third connects to the
intranet.

Network Support and Troubleshooting

Log Files:
The log files can indicate the general health of a server; log files contain a running list of
all errors, their description, the time and date they occurred and other information.
NetWare Log files:
Three log files solve NetWare server problems, they are:
o

The Console Log file (CONSOLE.LOG)

This log file keeps a history of all errors that have occurred and information that has been displayed on the servers
console. It is located in the SYS:\ETC directory on the server.
o

The Abend Log file (ABED.LOG)

This log file registers all Abends on a NetWare server. An Abend (Abnormal END) is an error condition that can halt the
proper operation of the NetWare server.
o

The Server Log file (SYS$LOG.ERR)

The server log file lists any errors that occur on the server, including Abends and NDS errors, time and date that has
occurred.

Windows 2000 server Log files:

Log files in Windows 2000 server Operating system are:
The System Log
This log file tracks every event that occurs on that computer. It is similar to NetWares SYS$LOG.ERR. The system log
tracks only three main types of events. They are

Information
Warning
Error

The Security Log

This log tracks security events specified by the system or domains Audit policy. The security log displays two types of
events:

Success Audit (The event passed the security audit)

Failure Audit (The event failed the security audit)

The Application Log

This log is similar to other two logs except that it tracks events for network services and applications.

Details about OSI Layer

for extra reading

1 Application layer:
This layer provides a means for the user to access information on the
network through an application. Many user applications that need to
communicate over the network interact with the Application layer
protocol directly. The user applications are not part of OSI Application
layer, use the networking services offered by the networking protocol
suite. Application layer functions typically include identifying
communication partners, and determining availability of required
resources. Some examples of application layer implementations include
Telnet, File Transfer Protocol (FTP), and Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
(SMTP).

2 Presentation layer:
Presentation layer converts local host computer data
representations into a standard network format for transmission on
the network. On the receiving side, it changes the network format
into the appropriate host computer's format so that data can be
utilized independent of the host computer. ASCII and EBCDIC
conversions, cryptography, and the like are handled here.
Examples of Presentation layer coding and conversion schemes
include common data representation formats, conversion of
character representation formats, common data compression
schemes, and common data encryption schemes.
Presentation layer implementations are not typically associated with
a particular protocol stack. Some well-known standards for video
include QuickTime and Motion Picture Experts Group (MPEG).
QuickTime is an Apple Computer specification for video and audio,
and MPEG is a standard for video compression and coding.

3. Session layer:
The session layer establishes, manages, and terminates communication sessions.
Communication sessions consist of service requests and service responses that occur
between applications located in different network devices. These requests and responses
are coordinated by protocols implemented at the session layer. Some examples of sessionlayer implementations include AppleTalk's Zone Information Protocol (ZIP), and Decent
Phase Session Control Protocol (SCP).
4. Transport layer:
Transport layer is responsible for providing reliable service between the hosts.
Upper layer datagrams are broken down into manageable datagrams and then
appropriate header information (such as sequence number, port number, etc.) is added
to the datagram before passing it on to the Network layer. Two frequently used transport
protocols are the TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and the UDP (User Datagram
Protocol).

Important features of Transport layer:

Transport layer ensures reliable service.
Breaks the message (from sessions layer) into smaller datagrams, and appends appropriate unit
header information.
Responsible for communicating with the Session layer
Important features of TCP/UDP:
TCP/IP widely used protocol for Transport/Network layers
TCP: (Transport Control Protocol) TCP ensures that a packet has reached its intended
destination by using an acknowledgement. If not, it retransmits the lost messages. Hence, TCP is
called a connection oriented protocol.
UDP (Universal Data gram Protocol): UDP simply transmits packets over the internet. It does not
wait for an acknowledgement. It is the responsibility of upper layer protocols to ensure that the
information had reached the intended partner(s). Hence, UDP is often called connectionless
protocol.
Application programs that do not need connection-oriented protocol generally use UDP.

5 . Network layer:
Network layer is responsible for the routing of packets
through the entire network. The layer uses logical addressing for this
purpose. Note that the physical address (like MAC address) keeps
changing from hop to hop when a packet travels from source to
destination. As a result, an address that doesn't change is required to
ensure continuity between hops. This is nothing but logical address.
For IP networks, IP address is the logical address; and for Novell
network, IPX address is the logical address, and so on. This layer also
provides for congestion control, and accounting information for the
network. IP (Internet Protocol) is an example of a network layer
protocol.

6. Data link layer:

Data link layer provides delivery of information frames between communicating
partners. This layer is responsible for flow regulation, error detection and correction, and
framing of bits for transmission. The network data frame is made up of checksum, source
address, destination address, and the data itself. The largest frame size that can be sent is
known as the maximum transmission Unit (MTU).

Important features of Data link layer:

Assembles bits into frames, making them ready for transmission over the network.
Provides error detection, and correction to transmitted frames. If the checksum is not correct, it asks for retransmission. (Send a control
message).
Consists of two sub layers:
Logical Link Control (LLC): Defines how data is transferred over the cable and provides data link service to the higher layers.
Medium Access Control (MAC): Controls media access by regulating the communicating nodes using pre-defined set of rules. (i.e. Token
passing, Ethernet [CSMA/CD] all have MAC sub-layer protocol).
Different Data link layer protocols define different network and protocol characteristics, including physical addressing, network
topology, error notification, sequencing of frames, and flow control. Physical addressing (as opposed to logical addressing) defines how
devices are addressed at the data link layer. The protocols used in Data link layer are SLIP, PPP, and CSLP.

7. Physical layer:

This is the bottom-most layer of the OSI model. The Physical layer
handles the bit-level communications across the physical medium. The
physical medium could be made up of wired electrical signals, or light, or
radio (wireless) signals. Physical layer specifications define characteristics
such as media, data rates, maximum transmission distances, and physical
connectors.

What are the difference between DOMAIN and WORKGROUP?

Workgroup:(i)Every PC is responsible for its security own.
(ii)No centralize administration
(iii)Main aim to save hardware recourse
(iv)Best suite in school, training institute, cyber caf
Domain: (i)Server is responsible for data safety.
(ii)Centralize administration
(iii)Main aim is to secure data
(iv)Best suite in company environments