POWDER METALLURGY

BY
DR.RAHUL KHANDAGALE

History of Applications
3000 B.C. Egyptians made tools with
powder metallurgy
1900s tungsten filament for light bulb
1930s carbide tool materials
1960s automobile parts
1980s aircraft engine turbine parts

Powder Metallurgy (P/M)

Competitive with processes
such as casting, forging, and
machining.
Used when
melting point is too high (W,
Mo).
reaction occurs at melting
(Zr).
too hard to machine.
very large quantity.
Near 70% of the P/M part
production is for automotive
applications.
Good dimensional accuracy.
Controllable porosity.
Size range from tiny balls for

Basic Steps In Powder

Metallurgy

Powder Production
Blending or Mixing
Powder Consolidation
Sintering
Finishing

The P/M Process

3 Basic steps:
Mixing
Forming
Sintering

Optional
Manufacturing
steps are
sometimes needed.

Making Powder-Metallurgy Parts

 Powder Metallurgy is defined as the technique of

producing metal & non metal powders and
utilizing them for manufacturing components.
Application:
Automotive- wipers, doors, clutches, brakes
Defence- rockets, missiles, bullets,cartridge
cases etc.
Refractory material.
Aerospace application such as satellite, space
vehicles.
Atomic applications such as reactors, generators.

Steps in Powder Metallurgy

1) Powder production:
Methods:
a) Mechanical
b) Physical
c) Chemical
d) Electro-chemical

a) Machining:
Use of machine tools to produce powders in the form of
chips.
Relatively coarse powders of irregular shapes.
Applications : Magnesium powders, beryllium ,silver
solders, dental alloys, Cr powders for tracer bullets in
defence applications of fireworks.

b) Crushing:
The method use hammers, jaw crushers, gyratory
crushers etc.
Brittle materials - crushing irregular powders.
Ductile materials - elongated before fracturing
flaky in shape
Use: for brittle material like Ti,Zr,V

c) Milling:
Most widely used method.
Rotating ball- mill machine is used.
Tumbling performed as dry or wet In case
of wet water, alcohol or acetone is used.
Application: Used for production of
carbide-metal and cermets.
d) Shotting:
Material is in hot boiling sate an poured on
vibrating screen.
Liquid droplets are solidified in atmosphere.
Air or neutral gas as nitrogen.
Application: Non ferrous metals.

Milling

Mechanical
Comminution/pulverization

(a)rollcrushing,(b)ballmill,and(c)hammermilling.

e) Graining:
Graining method is similar to shotting
except cooling medium is water.
Coarse powder in spherical form.
Application: Pulverizing powders of metals
such as Zn, Bi, Tin etc.
f) Atomization:
Mechanical disintegration of molten metal by
high pressure of air or gas.
Particles solidified in controlled atmosphere.
Powder is spherical.
Application: pure metal of Fe, Cu, Al

1. Powder Production
Many methods: extraction from compounds,
deposition, atomization, fiber production,
mechanical powder production, etc.
Atomization is the dominant process

(a) Water or gas atomization; (b) Centrifugal atomization; (c) Rotating elec

Methods of metal-powder
production by atomization

(a) melt atomization

(b) atomization with a rotating consumable electrode.

GAS ATOMIZATION

2) Physical Processes
a) Condensation:
Condensing metal vapors to obtain metal
powders.
For volatile metals transforms to vapors.
Carried out in controlled atmp. to avoid
formation of metal oxides.
Application: Mfg. of powders for Zn, Mg, Cd

b) Thermal decomposition
(Gaseous Pyrolysis)
Based on decomposing the carbonyl vapors of
metal at controlled temp. and pressure and
breaking the metal into powder.
Decomposed powder is of high purity and
spherical in shape.
Application
For metal carbonyls such as Fe, Ni, Mo, Co.
Using carbon-monoxide then decomposition of
carbonyl vapors to metal powder.
Carbonyls are volatile and vapors decompose
at temp. 150 4000C and pressure at 1 atm.

3) Chemical processes
a) Reduction:
Breaking the oxide, oxalates, formates or
halides of metals into metal powder by
using a suitable reducing agent.
Application: To obtain powders of Fe, Cu,
Ni, W, Mo, Co.
The reducing agent may be solid or gas
such as carbon, hydrogen, ammonia,
carbon monoxide

b) Intergranular corrosion:
Grain boundaries corrode faster than the grains.
Due to corrosion Grains separate out in the form
of poly crystalline metal.
Applications
Stainless Steel Fe, Cr, Ni
(Cr combines with C form complex carbide-then
carbide is corroded by boiling the steel in
aqueous solution of 11% CuSo4 and 10 % H2SO4)
[Now atomization is used to obtain Fe powder]

 C) Precipitation
Less noble metal displaces a more noble metal in
an aqueous solution containing ions of more
noble metal.
The more noble metal thus separates out in the
form of precipitates.
Application
Powder production of Ag, Sn, Cu
Ag is displaced from an aqueous solution of silver
nitrate by Cu or Fe
Sn is displaced from an aqueous solution of
stannous chloride by Zn.
Cu is displaced from aqueous solution of CuSo4 by
Fe

4) Electro-chemical Processes
Based on electro deposition or electroplating
Metal powders are obtained by electro-deposition from
metal aqueous solutions or fused salts.
In electro-plating a continuous & adherent coating
of metal is formed on the cathode component
while in electro deposition ,a coarse and nonadherent layer is formed on the cathode
The powder size and type can be controlled by
High current, Low metal ion concentration, Low
temp. proper circulation of electrolyte
Application
Powder of Cu, Be, Fe, Zn, Sn, Ni

Electrochemical action:
Solution of metal salt
Current
Metal deposits on cathode

Electrolytic

Step 2:Powder Conditioning

Powder obtained by earlier method may
not be used in compacting
Powder Conditioning

Heat treatment

Blending or mixing

Sieving

Heat treatment

HT is carried out to
- Eliminate work hardening effects
- Reduce oxide content
- Reduce impurities
- Alter apparent density
HT-Annealing (reducing atmosphere)
High temp annealing
- pressure
apparent density
Low temp annealing
-pressure
apparent density

Powder Testing and Evaluation

Powders should be evaluated for their
suitability for further processing
Flow rate measures the ease with which
powder can be fed and distributed into a die
Apparent density is the measure of a powders
ability to fill available space without external
pressure
Compressibility is the effectiveness of applied
pressure
Green strength is used to describe the strength
of the pressed powder after compacting

Sieving
Non uniform size of powder leads to alteration
of properties of final component
Powder is passing over a set of std. sieves
and only the desired powder size is retained
for further processing

Blending or Mixing
To obtain a homogenous mix. of powders to
improve the compacting and sintering
properties.
Blenders-lubricants, gas or vapours
Binders - increase green strength

Some common equipment geometries used for blending

powders
(a) Cylindrical, (b) rotating cube, (c) double cone,
(d) twin shell

Step 3 Powder Compacting or Pressing

Process of pressing and shaping to
powders in a die and punch
Methods:
- Pressure less compacting
- Cold pressure compacting
- Hot pressure compacting

Powder Pressing
Punch
Die

Part

Punch

Dual action press

Compacting
Loose powder is compacted and densified into a
shape, known as green compact
Most compacting is done with mechanical presses
and rigid tools
Hydraulic and pneumatic presses are also used

Figure 18-3 (Left) Typical press for the compacting of

metal powders. A removable die set (right) allows the
machine to be producing parts with one die set while
another is being fitted to produce a second product.

Compaction
(a) Compactionof
metalpowderto
formabushing.
Thepressed
powderpartis
calledgreen
compact.
(b) Typicaltooland
diesetfor
compactinga
spurgear.

 Increased compaction pressure

Provides better packing of particles and
leads to porosity
localized deformation allowing new
contacts to be formed between particles

 At higher pressures, the green density approaches

density of the bulk metal
Pressed density greater than 90% of the bulk density
is difficult to obtain
Compaction pressure used depends on desired
density

 Smaller particles provide greater strength mainly due to

reduction in porosity
Size distribution of particles is very important. For same
size particles minimum porosity of 24% will always be
there
Box filled with tennis balls will always have open space between
balls
Introduction of finer particles will fill voids and result in density

Density Variation

Density variation in compacting metal powders in different dies:

(a) and (c) single-action press
(b) and (d) double-action press.
Note in (d) the greater uniformity of density in pressing with two punches
with separate movements as compared with (c).
Generally, uniformity of density is preferred, although there are
situations in which density variation, and hence variation of properties,
within a apart may be desirable.

Complex Compacting
If an extremely complex shape is desired, the
powder may be encapsulated in a flexible mold,
which is then immersed in a pressurized gas or
liquid
Process is known as isostatic compaction

In warm compaction, the powder is heated prior to

pressing
The amount of lubricant can be increased in the
powder to reduce friction
Because particles tend to be abrasive, tool wear is
a concern in powder forming

Cold Isostatic Pressing(CIP)

Schematic illustration of
cold isostatic pressing
as applied to formation
of a tube. The powder is
enclosed in a flexible
container around a solid
core rod. Pressure is
applied isostatically to
the assembly inside a
high-pressure chamber.

Hot-Isostatic Pressing
Hot-isostatic pressing (HIP) combines powder
compaction and sintering into a single
operation
Gas-pressure squeezing at high temperatures

Heated powders may need to be protected

from harmful environments
Products emerge at full density with unifrom,
isotropic properties
Near-net shapes are possible

Hot Isostatic Pressing(HIP)

Other compacting and shaping

operations
Rolling
Extrusion
Spray Deposition

Powder Rolling

Powder Extrusion

Spray Casting

Spray casting (Osprey process) in which molten metal is sprayed

over a rotating mandrel to produce seamless tubing and pipe..

Densitry of compact

Density depends on pressure applied

Generally between 1 to 150 kg/mm2

Compacting pressure

Different Mechanism to apply pressure:

HER

Isostatic
Explosive

Extrusion

Powder rolling

vibratory

3. Powder Consolidation

Cold compaction with 100 900

MPa to produce a Green body.
Die pressing
Cold isostatic pressing
Rolling
Gravity
Injection Molding small, complex
parts.

Characterization of Powders

Size of powders 0.1 um 1 mm

Sieve size quoted as mesh number
Particle D = 15/mesh number (mm)
325 mesh 45 um

Sintering

 In the sintering operation, the pressed-powder compacts are

heated in a controlled atmosphere to right below the melting
point
Three stages of sintering
Burn-off (purge)- combusts any air and removes lubricants
or binders that would interfere with good bonding
High-temperature- desired solid-state diffusion and
bonding occurs
Cooling period- lowers the temperature of the products in
a controlled atmosphere
All three stages must be conducted in oxygen-free
conditions

Carried out in three stages:

First stage: Temperature is slowly
increased so that all volatile materials in the
green compact that would interfere with
good bonding is removed
Rapid heating in this stage may entrap
gases and produce high internal pressure
which may fracture the compact

Second stage: High temperature stage

Promotes solid-state
bonding by diffusion.
Diffusion is timetemperature sensitive.
Needs sufficient time

Promotes vapour-phase
transport
Because
material
heated very close to
MP, metal atoms will
be released in the
vapour phase from the
particles
Vapour
phase
resolidifies
at
the
interface

 Third stage: Sintered product is cooled in

a controlled atmosphere
Prevents oxidation and thermal shock

Gases commonly used for sintering:

H2, N2, inert gases or vacuum

 Liquid Phase Sintering

During sintering a liquid phase, from the lower
MP component, may exist
Alloying may take place at the particle-particle
interface
Molten component may surround the particle
that has not melted
High compact density can be quickly attained
Important variables:
Nature of alloy, molten component/particle wetting,
capillary action of the liquid

4. Sintering
Parts are heated to 0.7~0.9
Tm.
Transforms compacted
mechanical bonds to much
stronger metallic bonds.

Shrinkage always occurs:

V
Vol _ shrinkage

sintered

Vgreen

green

sintered

green
sintered

Linear _ shrinkage

1/ 3

Sintering on Particles

Sintering

Powder Compaction and Sintering

Sintering
The process whereby compressed metal powder is heated in a controlled atmosphere
furnace to a temperature below its melting point, but high enough to allow bonding of
the particles.
Sintered density depends on its green density and sintering conditions (temperature,
time and furnace atmosphere).
Sintering temperatures are generally within 70 to 90% of the melting point of the metal
or alloy.
Times range from 10 minutes for iron and copper to 8 hours for tungsten and tantalum

 Sintering mechanisms are complex and

depend on the composition of metal particles
as well as processing parameters. As
temperature increases two adjacent particles
begin to form a bond by diffusion (solid-state
bonding).
If two adjacent particles are of different
metals, alloying can take place at the interface
of two particles. One of the particles may
have a lower melting point than the other. In
that case, one particle may melt and surround
the particle that has not melted (liquid-phase
sintering).

Secondary Operations
Most powder metallurgy products are ready
to use after the sintering process
Some products may use secondary operation
to provide enhanced precision, improved
properties, or special characteristics
Distortion may occur during nonuniform cooldown so the product may be repressed,
coined, or sized to improve dimensional
precision

Secondary Operations
If massive metal deformation takes place in the
second pressing, the operation is known as P/M
forging
Increases density and adds precision
Infiltration and impregnation- oil or other liquid is
forced into the porous network to offer lubrication
over an extended product lifetime
Metal infiltration fills in pores with other alloying
elements that can improve properties
P/M products can also be subjected to the
conventional finishing operations: heat treatment,
machining, and surface treatments

Design Aspects

(a) Length to thickness ratio limited to 2-4; (b) Steps

limited to avoid density variation; (c) Radii provided to
extend die life, sleeves greater than 1 mm, through hole
greater than 5 mm; (d) Feather-edged punches with flat
face; (e) Internal cavity requires a draft; (f) Sharp corner
should be avoided; (g) Large wall thickness difference
should be avoided; (h) Wall thickness should be larger

Advantages and Disadvantages of P/M

Virtually unlimited choice of alloys, composites, and associated properties.
Refractory materials are popular by this process.
Controlled porosity for self lubrication or filtration uses.
Can be very economical at large run sizes (100,000 parts).
Long term reliability through close control of dimensions and physical properties.
Very good material utilization.
Limited part size and complexity
High cost of powder material.
High cost of tooling.
Less strong parts than wrought ones.
Less well known process.

Advantages and Disadvantages

of Powder Metallurgy
Advantages
Elimination or
reduction of
machining
High production rates
Complex shapes
Wide variations in
compositions
Wide property
variations
Scrap is eliminated or
reduced

Disadvantages
Inferior strength
properties
High tooling costs
High material cost
Size and shape
limitations
Dimensional
changes during
sintering
Density variations
Health and safety
hazards

Basic Processing Steps

Products and applications