Transport in Mammals

 reason for a transport system

 due to large size of mammals, diffusion alone
cannot effectively deliver oxygen and
nutrients / remove wastes over long distance
→ ∴ need a transport system
 transport system = blood + blood vessels
+ heart
Structure of Heart
 pericardium ( 圍心膜 )
 a tough, 2-layered sac
 with pericardial fluid to lubricates the surface
and reduce friction between the heart walls
and surrounding tissues
 inelastic → prevent the heart from becoming
over-filled by blood and therefore over-
stretched
 auricles (atria)
 two upper thin-walled chambers
 left auricle: receives oxygenated blood from
pulmonary vein
 right auricle: receives deoxygenated blood
from superior and inferior vena cava
 ventricles
 two lower thick-walled chambers
 receive blood from auricles
 right ventricle: pumps deoxygenated blood to
lungs; owing to this short distance → less
muscular than the left ventricle
 left ventricle: pumps oxygenated blood to all
parts of the body (except lungs) via aorta;
more muscular to generate higher pressure
 heart valves: cuspid valves and semi-lunar
valves
 tricuspid valve between right auricle and right
ventricle
 bicuspid valve between left auricle and left
ventricle
 prevent blood from flowing back from ventricle to
auricle
 chordae tendinae (heart strings), tough inelastic
tendons attached to the papillary muscles of the
ventricular walls → prevent cuspid valves from
turning inside out
 semi-lunar valves: three flaps; at the base of
pulmonary artery and aorta → prevent blood from
flowing back into ventricles
 coronary system
 coronary artery from the aorta supplies
oxygen and nutrient to the heart muscles
 coronary vein drains blood into the right
auricle directly
Cardiac Cycle
 to maintain a continuous circulation of
blood through the body
 alternate contraction (systole) and
relaxation (diastole)
http://www-medlib.med.utah.edu/kw/pharm/hyper_heart1.html
 auricular systole – contraction of auricle
(0.1s)
 the blood pressure in the auricles is higher
than that in ventricles
→ blood is forced into the ventricles
→ tricuspid and bicuspid valves open
 ventricular systole – contraction of ventricle
(0.2s to 0.4s)
 pressure in ventricles exceeds that in auricles
→ ventricular volume ↓
→ push blood into the pulmonary artery
and aorta
→ tricuspid valve and bicuspid valve
close (lub)
→ semi-lunar valves are opened
 diastole – relaxation phase (0.5s to 0.8s) ventricular
pressure ↓
→ below the pulmonary artery and aorta
→ semi-lunar valves closed (tub)
 ventricular pressure falls below auricular pressure
→ bicuspid and tricuspid valves are opened
→ blood flows from auricles into ventricles
→ ventricular volume ↑
Control of Heartbeat
 myogenic control – possesses its own
inherent mechanism for initiating
contraction of the cardiac muscle fibres;
rather than initiated by nerve impulse from
outside (i.e. neurogenic)
 cardiac pacemaker ( 起搏點 ) = SA node
 initial stimulus for a heart beat originates in a
group of special cardiac muscle cells called
sino-atrial node
 located in the wall of right auricle near where
the venae cavae enter
 it determines the basic rate of heart beat
(app. 70 / min.)
 this basic rate can be adjusted by stimulation
from autonomic nervous system (activates
involuntary action)
 wave of excitation spreads out from SA node
across both auricles → contraction
 this wave of excitation reaches a similar of
group of cells called atrio-ventricular node
(AV node)
 lies between the two auricles
 a delay of app. 0.15 sec in conduction from
SA node to the AV node → permitting
auricular systole to be completed before
ventricular systole begins
 new wave of excitation from the AV node is
conducted along the bundle of His, a strand
of modified cardiac muscle fibres
 bundle of His runs down the interventricular
septum and then fan over the wall of the
ventricle where they spread up into a
network of fibres called the Purkinje fibres
 both ventricles are stimulated to contract
simultaneously
 the wave of ventricular contraction begins at
the apex of the heart and spreads upwards
squeezing blood out of the ventricles towards
the arteries
 once cardiac muscle has begun to contract,
it cannot respond to any other stimulus –
the refractory period
 relatively long refractory period
→ cardiac muscle is able to contract
vigorously and rapidly without becoming
fatigued
→ impossible for the heart to develop
a state of sustained contraction
tetanus, or to develop an oxygen debt
Regulation of Heart Rate
 intrinsic rate of the heart beat is controlled by the
activity of the SA node
 body’s demands on its circulatory system are
constantly changing and the heart rate has to be
continuously adjusted accordingly
 achieved by the activity of 2 types of control
system: one nervous and one hormonal /
chemical
 cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate
 stroke volume: volume of blood expelled at each
heart beat
 nervous control of heart rate
 by reflex action:
 originate in baroreceptors (stretch receptors)
located in the walls of the aortic arch, in the
sinuses of the carotid arteries and in the walls of
the vena cava
 sensory nerves carry impulses to the

cardiovascular control centre (containing an

acceleratory and an inhibitory centre) in the
medulla oblongata of the brain
 served by two nerves of the autonomic nervous
system: vagus nerve and sympathetic nerve; the
action of which are antagonistic
 vagus nerve ( 迷走神經 ) (part of the

parasympathetic nerve) from the inhibitory centre

 release of acetylcholine (a neurotransmitter substance)
upon stimulation
 slows down the heart rate but not affect the force of
ventricular contraction
 sympathetic nerve (part of sympathetic nervous
system) from the accelerator centre
 release of noradrenaline (another neurotransmitter
substance) upon stimulation
 stimulates both the heart rate and force of ventricular
systole
Factors controlling Heart Rate
 carbon dioxide concentration:
 CO2 conc. ↑ → blood pH ↓
→ carotid body of carotid artery stimulated
→ impulse to cardiovascular control centre
→ acceleratory centre stimulated and send
impulses via the sympathetic nerve to SA node
→ heart rate ↑
→ ↑ removal of CO2
 blood pressure
 ↑ blood flow in the vena cava indicates increasing in
blood returned from the tissues → stimulate
acceleratory centre
→ heart rate ↑
 ↑ blood flow in aorta and carotid artery

→ distention of blood vessel

→ stimulate stretch receptors
→ stimulate inhibitory centre to send impulse via
vagus nerve
→ heart rate ↓
 prevent the heart from working too fast, and to
enable it to adjust its activity
 oxygen concentration:
 O2 conc. ↓
→ detected by chemoreceptors in
carotid artery
→ stimulate the accelerator centre
→ heart rate ↑
 hormonal control of heart rate
 thyroxine (from the thyroid gland) and
adrenaline (from adrenal medulla)
→ ↑ heart rate
 acetylcholine
→ ↓ heart rate
Blood Vessels
 arteries → arterioles → capillaries →
venules → veins
 arteries and veins: 3 layers
 tunica intima:
 inner lining of squamous endothelium
 provides smooth surface to reduce the risk of blood
clotting
 tunica media:
 middle layer of smooth muscle and elastic fibres
 protects the blood vessels against the high blood
pressure
 tunica externa:
 external layer of fibrous connective tissue
possessing collagen fibres
 protects the inner structures of the blood vessels
Arteries
 large arteries (aorta, subclavian and carotid):
thick walls to withstand the high blood pressure
 middle layer of elastic fibres: enable them to
dilate but not to rupture during ventricular systole
 smooth muscles in the middle layer able to
contract to maintain an even flow of blood during
the end of systole
Arterioles
 branching from arteries
 with middle layer of smooth muscle,
innervated by the sympathetic nervous
system which controls vaso-constriction to
regulate the blood flow to different parts of
the body to meet the different needs
 some arterioles possess precapillary sphincter muscles at the
capillary ends → reduce blood flow through the capillary
network
 certain regions have arterio-venous shunts → ‘short-circuit’
between arterioles and venules → regulate the quantities of
blood flowing through the capillary beds
Veins
  under low blood pressure
 → nodanger of bursting → thinner wall with less
muscles and elastic fibres in the middle layer
 bigger lumen than an artery to offer less
resistance to blood flow
 with semi-lunar valves along its length to prevent
the backflow of blood
 → maintain unidirectional blood flow
 blood flow in arteries
 when ventricle contracts → blood is pushed
out of the heart to distend the strong elastic
aorta
 when ventricle relaxes → semi-lunar closed;
elastic aorta recoils and muscle fibres
contract pushing blood forward → maintain
pressure of blood to various organs
 blood flow in veins
 contraction of skeletal
muscles squeeze the
thin-walled veins
→ increase pressure
of blood
 presence of valves prevent the
backflow of blood
 during inspiration, pressure
inside thorax ↓
→ helps drawing blood
into the thorax
Capillaries
 smallest blood vessels and form a network
 consisting solely of endothelium
 permeable to water and dissolved
substances
 place of exchange of materials between
blood and body cells
Variation in blood pressure, velocity
and permeability
 blood pressure
 arteries
 maintained at quite high level because blood is
pump out of the heart
 fluctuation due to systole and diastole of the heart

 in order to withstand this high blood pressure →

thick wall containing large proportion of elastic

fibres
 easily be expanded to reduce the stretching effect

 elastic recoil helps to push blood forward during

diastolic phase of the heart

 blood pressure
 arterioles
 decrease as they are further away from the heart
 more muscle fibres to control the amount of blood

flow in the organs by vasodilation and

vasoconstriction
 venules and veins
 remains at very low value
 elastic fibres increase to provide elastic recoil that

restores the veins back to the original shape after it

has been squeezed by skeletal muscles
 velocity
 high blood pressure in arteries → high
velocity
 large total cross sectional area of capillary
network → low flow rate
 volume of blood = area x flow rate
 volume at any point along blood vessel is the
same, as area ↑ → flow rate ↓
 such low rate enables blood to stay longer in the
tissue to ensure more complete exchange of
materials to take place
 joining of capillaries into fewer number of
venules and veins → cross-sectional area ↓
→ blood velocity ↑
 permeability
 very low along arteries and arterioles as they
have very thick walls
 high in capillaries as they have very thin
walls which consist if one layer of
endothelium → enhance exchange of
materials
Exchange of materials between
blood and body cells
 pumping action of the heart → squeezes
blood against the blood vessel wall →
outward-acting force called hydrostatic
force
 attraction force to water by blood
constituents (mainly by plasma proteins)
called colloidal osmotic potential
 filtration – near the arterial end
1. blood is under high hydrostatic pressure at the arterial
end of a capillary because of the pumping action of the
heart (32mmHg)
2. plasma protein contributes to the colloidal osmotic
pressure which tends to absorb water from the
intercellullar spaces into the capillary by osmosis
(-24mmHg)
3.  hydrostatic pressure > osmotic colloidal pressure ∴
water together with all soluble and permeable
substances leave the capillary to form tissue fluid
4. nutrients and oxygen also diffuse into the intercellular
spaces
5. reduction in blood volume → hydrostatic pressure ↓
 absorption – near the venous end
1. when hydrostatic pressure < colloidal
pressure → absorptive pressure is
established
2. water is absorbed from intercellular
spaces into the capillary by osmosis
3. carbon dioxide and other metabolic
wastes diffuse from tissue back into the
capillary via tissue fluid
Composition of Blood
 plasma
 slightly
alkaline, yellowish fluid
 plasma protein includes
 fibrinogen and prothrombin: important in blood
clotting
 serum globulin
 α -globulin: binds thyroxine
 β -globulin: binds iron to form haemoglobin
 γ -globulin: some act as antibody (immunoglobulin)

 albumin:
soluble proteins important in
homeostasis by
 maintaining osmotic potential of blood
 working with haemoglobin to act as acid-base
buffer to maintain the pH level of blood
 plasma (cont.)
 nutrients: glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol
and water-soluble vitamins (B and C)
 mineral salts: in form of ions to regulate the osmotic
potential and pH of blood
 metabolic wastes: include carbon dioxide, ammonia,
urea etc.
 hormones and enzymes: for regulatory function
 gases: oxygen and carbon dioxide
 red blood cells (erythrocytes; red corpuscles)
 number varies according to age, sex and state of
health
 life span of 120 days; produced in haemopoietic tissue
(red bone marrow in adults; or liver in foetus) and
destroyed in the spleen or liver
 biconcave discs → provide a larger surface area to
volume ratio for gaseous exchange
 red blood cells (erythrocytes; red corpuscles)
 cellis thin
→ efficient diffusion of gases
 membrane is pliable
→ able to squeeze through small capillaries
→ ↑ contact with the capillary wall;
slow movement ensures complete exchange of
gases
 enucleated (no nucleus) in mammals RBC (except
camel and llama)
→ more haemoglobin can be packed
 contain enzyme carbonic anhydrase for transporting
carbon dioxide
 white blood cells (leucocytes; white
corpuscles)
 larger than RBC; present in smaller number
 nucleated
 important role in the body’s defence
mechanisms against disease
 life span: normally a few days
 2 main groups: granulocytes and
agranulocytes
 granulocytes (polymorphonuclear / PMN
leucocytes)
 granular cytoplasm
 lobed nucleus
 originate in the bone marrow
 capable of amoeboid movement
 neutrophils (phagocytes) (70%)
 able to squeeze between the cells of the capillary walls and
enter the intercellular spaces, a process called diapedesis
 actively phagocytic, engulf and digest disease-causing
bacteria
 eosinophils (1.5%): cytoplasmic granules stained red
with red dye eosin; anti-histamine properties
 basophils (0.5%): granules stained blue with basic dye
such as methylene blue; produce histamine and
heparin
 agranulocytes (mononuclear leucocytes)
 non-granularcytoplasm
 monocytes (4%)
 bean-shaped nucleus
 actively phagocytic and ingest bacteria

 same manner as neutrophils

 lymphocytes (24%)
 produced in the thymus gland and lymphoid tissue
 small quantity of cytoplasm

 responsible for immune reactions

 platelets
 irregularly shaped membrane-bound cell
fragments
 colourless
 no nucleus
 produced by large cells in the bone marrow
 initiate blood clotting
 functions of blood
 transport function
 soluble organic compounds from small intestine to
other body parts
 soluble excretory materials

 hormones to target organs

 distribution of heat; maintain constant body

temperature
 oxygen and carbon dioxide
 functions of blood
 body defence
 blood clotting to prevent excessive blood loss and
the entry of pathogens
 phagocytosis by granulocytes

 immunity mediated by antibodies

 homeostatic function
 maintenance of a constant blood osmotic potential
and pH (by plasma protein)
Transport of Oxygen
 haemoglobin
 265 million molecules of haemoglobin
 protein molecule composed of four polypeptide chains
→ 2 α and 2 β chains → each is folded into globular
protein (globin) attached to a haem unit
 each haem unit comprises of a porphyrin ring
containing an atom of iron (II) at the centre
 each haemoglobin can carry 4 oxygen molecules
 Hb + 4O2 ↔ HbO8 (oxyhaemoglobin)
Oxygen Dissociation Curve
 oxygen concentration is measured by partial
pressure / oxygen tension → in kPa (kilopascals)
→ a measure of how much of the whole
atmospheric pressure is due to the oxygen
pressure
 normal atm pressure = 100kPa or 760mmHg
 21% of atm air = O2
∴ oxygen tension = 100 x 21% = 21kPa (or
152mmHg)
 combination of oxygen with haemoglobin to form
oxyhaemoglobin occurs under condition when
the partial pressure of oxygen is high, such as in
the lung alveolar capillaries
 when partial pressure of oxygen is low (in
tissues), oxyhaemoglobin tends to dissociate
and oxygen is released
 affinity of oxygen to haemoglobin is measured
by determining the percentage of saturation of
blood with oxygen, which is determined by the
oxygen tension
 when the percentage oxygen saturation of blood
is plotted against the partial pressure of oxygen
→ oxygen dissociation curve
 loading tension: tension at which 95% of the
pigment is saturated with oxygen
 unloading tension: tension at which 50% of the
pigment is saturated with oxygen
 at partial pressure of oxygen = 0 → no oxygen is
attached to the haemoglobin
 over the steep part of the curve, small decrease
in oxygen partial pressure → sizable fall in the %
saturation → oxygen given up
 why S shaped?
 allostery – when oxygen combines with iron (II)
atom, it distorts shape of haemoglobin slightly
→ facilitating much faster uptake of oxygen
 blood can become fully saturated at relatively low
oxygen tension, i.e. haemoglobin has a high affinity
for oxygen
 steep part of the curve: small drop in oxygen tension
→ comparatively large fall in blood saturation %
→ haemoglobin gives up more oxygen
 high affinity for oxygen where oxygen tension is high
 low affinity when oxygen tension is low
Bohr Effect
 Bohr effect: increased partial pressure of
carbon dioxide
→ oxygen dissociation curve will be
shifted to the right
→ decrease the affinity of Hb for oxygen
 ∴ presence of CO2 facilitate the release of
O2 from Hb
 curve shift to the right → release oxygen
more easily
 curve shift to the left → load / pick up
oxygen more readily
 myoglobin: another respiratory pigment; a
conjugated protein of a single polypeptide
with a single haem group; widely
distributed in animals and is particular
common in skeletal muscle tissues of
mammals, which is responsible for the
colour of ‘red’ muscle
 curve for myoglobin is displaced to the left of
haemoglobin → great affinity for oxygen
 it only begins to release oxygen when the partial
pressure of oxygen is below 20 mmHg
 act as oxygen store in resting muscle tissue
 release oxygen only when supplies of
oxyhaemoglobin have been exhausted, e.g. in
case of severe muscular exercises
 if myoglobin-based oxygen is also exhausted,
muscle must respire anaerobically
 why is the curve of foetus to the left of that of
mother?
 the curve for foetus indicates that its blood has a
greater affinity for oxygen than the maternal
blood, as the foetus must obtain all of its oxygen
from its mother’s blood at the placenta
 so, at any partial pressure of oxygen, the foetal
blood will take up oxygen from the maternal
blood and will always be more saturated with
oxygen than the maternal blood
 how about the curve for small mammals and animals
living in high altitude like South America llama?
 small mammals: shift to the right
 large s.a. to vol. ratio
→ lose large amount of heat
→ higher metabolic rate to produce heat to
compensate for the loss which requires much
energy
→ more oxygen is released
 llama: shift to the left
 high altitude
→ reduced atmospheric pressure less oxygen
available (but still 21% of atm. air)
→ difficult to load haemoglobin with pressure
→ ∴ its blood has a high affinity for oxygen to
combine oxygen more readily
 temp. ↑ → reduction in affinity of oxygen for
haemoglobin → ↑ dissociation of oxygen → curve
shift to the right → more oxygen is delivered to
the active region
 carbon monoxide
 the affinity of iron (II) for carbon monoxide is several
hundred times as great as for oxygen
 a relatively stable compound called carboxy-
haemoglobin is formed
 prevent oxygen from combining with haemoglobin
 no longer possible for the transport of oxygen
 death from asphyxia (shortage of oxygen)
Transport of Carbon Dioxide
 in 3 ways
1. in aqueous solution in plasma (5%)
2. combined with haemoglobin to form
carbamino-haemoglobin (10%)
3. as hydrogencarbonate ion (85%)
Human Blood Groups – ABO system

 2 types of antigen on RBC surface:

A and B agglutinogens
 agglutinogen A is present → blood group A
 agglutinogen B is present → blood group B
 both A and B are present → blood group AB
 neither is present → blood group O
 antibody in plasma (agglutinin)
 plasma of group A → anti-B antibody (β -
agglutinin)
 plasma of group B → anti-A antibody (α -
agglutinin)
 plasma of group AB → no antibodies
 plasma of group O → both anti-A and anti-B
antibodies
 incompatible blood transfusion → may
block vital blood vessel and cause death;
OR
 cell membrane of foreign RBC are broken
down (haemolysis) → haemoglobin may
plug the nephron and damage the kidneys
 blood group O → universal donor as it
contains no agglutinogens on cell surface
→ no agglutinins in the recipient plasma
can act against
 blood group AB → universal recipient as it
has no agglutinins in it’s plasma → not
clump with any transfused blood
 rhesus factor (Rh factor) (out of syl.)
 85% of population possess RBC with agglutinogen called Rh
factor
→ Rh positive
 Rh negative blood usually contains no Rh agglutinins in its
plasma
 if Rh +ve blood enters Rh –ve individual → recipient produce Rh
agglutinins
 importance: Rh –ve mother bear a Rh +ve child
 during later stages of pregnancy, fragments of the Rh +ve cells
of foetus may enter to mothers’ circulation → mother produce Rh
agglutinin which can infiltrate the foetus and destroy foetal red
cells
 not large amount → first-born baby not seriously affected
 second Rh +ve baby may suffer