Introduction to GIS

Lecture 3:
Part 1. Understanding Spatial
Data Structures
Part 2. An introduction to the
Vector data model

Lecture by Austin Troy, University of Vermont

Introduction to GIS

Part 1. Understanding Spatial

Data Structures
 Introduction to GIS

Perception, Semantics, and Space

• How do we deal with representing semantic
constructions of spatial objects, like “mountain,”
“river,” “street,” “city,”
• How about representing more conceptual semantic
constructions like “temperature,” “migration
pattern,” “traditional homeland,” “habitat,”
“geographic range,” etc?
• Answer: we have various data models which use
different abstractions of reality
 Entities and Fields
• There are two general approaches for
representing things in space:
– Entities/ Objects: precise location and
dimensions and discrete boundaries
(remember, points are abstractions).
– Fields, or phenomena: a Cartesian
coordinate system where values vary
continuously and smoothly; these values
exist everywhere but change over space
 Introduction to GIS

Entities and Boundaries

• There are two general types of boundaries, bona fide
and fiat (D. Mark, B. Smith, A. Varzi)
• Pure bona fide boundaries represent real
discontinuities in the world, like roads, faults,
coastlines, power lines, rivers, islands, etc.
• Pure Fiat boundaries are a human cognitive or legal
construction, based on a categorization, such as
administrative unit, nation state, hemisphere
• Some have elements of both, like soil type areas
 Introduction to GIS

Two major data models

• Entity approach roughly corresponds with the vector
model
• Field approach roughly corresponds with raster model
• Any geographic phenomenon can be represented with
both, but one approach is usually better for a particular
circumstance
 Introduction to GIS

Raster
• Spatial features modeled with grids, or pixels
• Cartesian grid whose cell size is constant
• Grids identified by row and column number
• Grid cells are usually square in shape
• Area of each cell defines the resolution
• Raster files store only one attribute, in the form of a “z” value, or
grid code.
• Consider the contrary….
 Introduction to GIS

Vector
• Vector layers either represent:
– Points (no dimensions)
– Lines, or “arcs” (1 dimension) or
– Areas, or “polygons” (2 or 3 dimensions)
• Points are used to define lines and lines are used
to scribe polygons
• Each point line or polygon is a “feature,” with its
own record and its own attributes
 Introduction to GIS

Raster and Vector representations of the same terrain

Raster: great for surfaces Vector: limited with surfaces

Introduction to GIS

Raster and Vector

representations of the same
land use
Introduction to GIS

Raster and Vector

representations of the same
land use: closer in
 Introduction to GIS

Vector vs. Raster: bounding

Raster: bad with bounding Vector: boundary precision

Introduction to GIS

Vector vs. Raster: Sample points

Cancer rates across space
 Introduction to GIS

Moving between vector and raster

• In Arc View and Arc GIS, we can covert vector layers
to grids, based on an attribute, or grids to vector layers

The disadvantage of vector to raster is that boundaries can be imprecise because of cell shape
•
Each time you convert, you introduce more error too
•
Introduction to GIS

WHEN TO USE RASTER OR

VECTOR???
 Introduction to GIS

Raster data analysis is better for

representing phenomena:
• where boundaries are not precise
• that occur everywhere within a frame and can
be expressed as continuous numeric values
• where change is gradual across space
• where the attribute of a cell is a function of the
attributes of surrounding cells
 Introduction to GIS

Raster technical advantages :

• Simple file structure
• Simple overlay operations
• Small, uniform unit of analysis

Raster technical disadvantages :

• Big file size, especially for fine-grained data
• Difficult and error-prone reprojections
• Square pixels are unrealistic
 Introduction to GIS

Vector analysis is better :

• Where there are definable regions
• Where the relative position of objects is important
• Where precise boundary definition is needed
• Where multiple attributes are being analyzed for a given spatial
object
• For modeling of routes and networks
• For modeling regions where multiple overlapping attributes are
involved
• EG: units with man-made boundaries (cities, zip codes,
blocks), roads, rivers
 Introduction to GIS

Vector technical advantages :

• Smaller file size (in general)
• More graphically interpretable
• Allows for topology (see further on)

Vector technical disadvantages :

• Complicated file structure
• Minimum mapping units are inconsistent
between overlapping layers
 Introduction to GIS

Specific Vector Usages

• All legal and administrative boundaries (zip
codes, states, property lines, land ownership)
• Building footprints and 3-D models
• Roads
• Bedrock geology
• Pipelines, power lines, sewer lines
• Flight paths and transportation routes
• Coastlines
 Introduction to GIS

Specific Raster Usages

• Terrain modeling where micro-locational variability is
present and matters
• Groundwater modeling, where surface flow outside of
channels is important
• Representation of slope and aspect
• Representations of distance and proximity to features
• Spatial representation of probabilities (logit)
• Modeling phenomena in nature with continuous spatial
variability and numeric attributes, like soil moisture, depth to
bedrock, percent canopy cover, vegetative greenness index,
species richness index
 Introduction to GIS

Tossups
• In many cases, though, the choice between
raster and vector may not be so clear.
• Often it depends on the application
• The following are some examples where you
could go either way:
 Introduction to GIS

Soil
• Soil type: Vector
– Soil types are meant to represent discrete and
homogeneous areas and are qualitative. There is no
“slight gradation” between soil types like with pH
• Soil pH: raster
– pH is numeric, not categorical, and that number may vary
slightly within a single soil type polygon
– If pH were turned into categories, like High, Medium and
Low, vector might be better
 Introduction to GIS

Rivers
• Most people think of a river as a discretely bounded
entity, hence vector
• What about where the river size fluctuates seasonally,
e.g. desert rivers?
• Or where the location of the river bed changes slowly
and gradually over the years
• Or where the river becomes delta, and the distinction
between “river” and “swamp” becomes fuzzy?
• Or where the river has a certain probability of flowing
or being dry at any given location and time
 Introduction to GIS

Rivers
• Depends on the type of analysis being done
• With vector can do network modeling of stream and
river system, but only in the arcs
– Vector stream model can take advantage of topologically
enabled analysis tools
• With raster, can do surface flow modeling
– More realistic, because when it rains water flows
everywhere, not just in channels, shows accumulation
– Think of every piece of land as mini stream channel
 Introduction to GIS

Vegetation Mapping
• Vector works well for modeling vegetation stand type
where categories are broad, e.g. mixed conifer,
deciduous hardwood
• Raster works better where there is micro-locational
heterogeneity in species distribution
• Raster also works better for representing ecotones, or
edges between two stands
• The more specific and variable the classification, the
more likely the raster approach will be needed
Introduction to GIS

Part 2. Brief Intro to the Vector

Data Model
 Introduction to GIS

Intro to Vector
• Recall that there are three basic “feature” or
“object” types in the vector data type:
– Point
– Arc
– Polyons
• In general a given layer holds a given feature
type (e.g. “roads” is a line layer, “counties” is
a polygon layer, “weather stations” is point)
 Introduction to GIS

Intro to Vector
• A point layer only consists of a bunch of (x,y)
coordiantes
• In a line (arc) layer, points define lines
• In a polygon layer, lines define areas
• Hence each level of vector features builds on
the last
 Introduction to GIS

Intro to Vector
• Each point has a unique location
• 2 points define a line segment
• One or several line segments define an arc
• The endpoints of an arc are “nodes
• The angle points are “vertices” (sing. Vertex)
• The feature is the arc, not the line
• Two arcs meet at the nodes
 Introduction to GIS

Intro to Vector
• Several arcs can scribe a polygon
• Polygons are closed regions whose boundaries
are made up of line segments connected at
many angles.
• Polygons generally define an area of
homogenous phenomena (e.g. forest stand,
building, zip code, lake)
• These phenomena can be described by one or
more stored attributes
 Introduction to GIS

Vector Representation:lines
•Ring: this is a series of line segments (a string)
that close upon each other
•It is NOT a polygon!!

•The computer does not know that the area inside

“belongs” to that object
 Introduction to GIS

Vector Representation:lines
•A polygon is encoded
differently, because the
computer “knows” that the
areas within those arcs
“belongs” to that polygon,
while it does not with a ring
 Introduction to GIS

Vector: Topology
• Topology: spatial relationships between objects are
encoded; the spatial location of each point, line and
polygon is defined in relation to every other point, line and
polygon
• Topology allows for behaviors of objects in relation to
other objects to be defined
• Topology allows for powerful analysis tools and can
significantly reduce error and increase quality
• Vector files in ARC INFO are topologically encoded. Arc
GIS 8.3 geodatabases will be as well. Currently
geodatabases are partially topological
 Introduction to GIS

Vector Topology: purpose

• One of the most important functions of
topology is ensuring data quality and “logical
consistency”
• When you bring in line and polygon data from
external sources, you will often find errors
such as lines (arcs) that dangle or overshoot,
polygons that don’t close, adjacent polygons
that show up as not sharing a border (we’ll
return to this later in the semester)
 Introduction to GIS

Vector Topology helps deal with:

slivers

overshoots
dangles

Not sharing border

 Introduction to GIS

Vector Topology
• A topological structure helps ensure these problems
don’t happen because it allows for enforcing of user-
defined spatial rules
• ArcGIS 8.3 (coming soon) will include new tools for
defining and validating topology rules
• Topology can also be used for defining spatial rules
between layers to minimize errors and ensure logical
consistency between them
 Introduction to GIS

Topology rules: Example

• Say we have the following layers: property lots, sidewalk,
building footprints, zoning map
• We can specify topological rules, like:
– Lots must be enclosed polygons
– Buildings must be entirely within a lot
– Sidewalks must be outside a lot polygon
– Lots must fall entirely within a single zone
– Lots must either share a border with another lot or with city
land, including streets and sidewalks.
– In a low-density zone, no more than 20 lots can be touching
• We can’t do this yet, but will be able to shortly
 Introduction to GIS

Vector Topology Table

Consists of four elements
1. Polygon topology table
• Lists arcs/links comprising polygon
1. Node topology table
• Lists links/arcs that meet at each node
1. Arc, or “link” topology table
• Lists the nodes on which each link/arc ends and
polygons to right and left of each link/arc, based on start
and finish nodes
1. Table with real world coordinates for each point
 Introduction to GIS

Vector Topology Table

A table of the polygon topology
Graphical
display of
arcs, nodes,
vertices and
lines

Topology table for the ARCs making up the polygons

 Introduction to GIS

Spaghetti Data Model

•Just because feature looks like a point, line or polygon
does not mean it’s topological
Spaghetti Model is:
•Non-topological data model that looks like vector
•collections of line segments and points with no real
connection or topology
•Only stores features coordinates; there are no relative
relationships encoded in this model
•each feature has no knowledge of other features that it
intersects, is adjacent to, contiguous with or near
 Introduction to GIS

Spaghetti Data
•Generally have loose ends, nodes not “snapped,”
polygons don’t fully close, etc
•Polygons defined by coordinates of circumscribing
points, so common boundaries between two polygons
are often registered twice.
•Generally come from CAD files or digitizing
•They often look fine to the user, but are useless from
the standpoint of spatial analysis
•This approach is memory inefficient
Can “clean” these data, using user-defined tolerances