The Nature of Matter

Matter
Matter: all substances and materials in the
universe.
They each have volume (occupy space) and
mass.
Whichever chemical substance we study, it
can exist in three different physical states.
All matter is made up of particles called
atoms / molecules

Solid

Matter

Liquid
Gas

Solid, Liquid, Gas

Solid
Properties:

Has a fixed volume

Has high density
Has a definite shape
Does not flow

Particles arrangement:

Packed closely together

Have orderly arrangement
Little empty spaces
Strong forces between particles
Particles can vibrate but not
moved from their fixed position

Liquid
Properties:
Has a fixed volume
Moderate to high density
Takes the shape of the
container
Generally flow easily

Particles arrangement:
Packed closely together (<
solid)
Not in orderly arrangement
Little empty spaces (> solid)
Strong forces between particles

Gas
Properties:

No fixed volume
Low density
No definite shape
Flow easily

Particles arrangement:

Particles are far apart

Random arrangement
A lot of empty spaces
No forces between particles
Particles can vibrate & move

Liquid

Solid

Condensatio
n/
liquifaction

Evaporation /
vaporisation

Increasing temperature

Freezing /
solidification

Melting

Sublimation

Changes in Physical State

Gas

Melting & Freezing

Melting point: the temperature at which a
pure substance turns from solid to a liquid.
Freezing point: the temperature at which
a pure substance turns from liquid to solid.

Sublimation
Solid gas or gas solid
Eg.

Carbon dioxide (dry ice)

Iodine
Camphor

Evaporation, Condensation,
Boiling

Evaporation and condensation take place over a

range of temperature.
Eg. Splashes of water evaporates at room temperature.
Water vapour turn to form dew in the morning
The larger the surface area, faster evaporation.

Boiling takes place at specific temperature

(Boiling point / BP).
BP depends on the surrounding pressure
Pressure increase BP increase, vice versa
Eg. Pressure cooker

Volatile liquid low boiling point

BP decrease volatility increase

Purity of Substances
The boiling & melting points depends on the
purity of substances pure substance
melts & boils at definite temperature.
We can use this to test purity of substances.
Impure substance melts / boils over a range
of temperatures, not a particular point.

Lowers the melting point

Raises the boiling point

Heating & Cooling Curves

Show the change of temperature over time.
During the change of phase, the
temperature stays constant.
Solid to liquid and liquid to gas
heat energy is taken in
Gas to liquid and liquid to solid
heat energy is released
Impure substances melt over a range of
temperatures (eg. Wax).

Heating curve of water

Types of Mixture
Mixture: made from at least two parts.
Solutions: Combination of substances in
different states.
Soluble solids can dissolve in a liquid
solvent.

Solute: solid that dissolves in liquid

Solvent: liquid in which the solid dissolves

Insoluble solids do not dissolve but they

form suspensions in liquid.
Alloy: mixture of metals.
Liquids can be miscible / immiscible.

Types of Mixture Insoluble solid

+ liquid

Soluble solid
+ liquid

Mixture

Two / more
miscible liquids
Immiscible
liquids
Mixture of small
amounts of solids

Separation
Techniques

Separation

Separation method depends on:

Type of mixture
Which substance in the mixture that we are most
interested in.

Separatio
n
Technique
s

Insoluble solid
+ liquid

Soluble solid
+ liquid

Mixture

ui d
q
i
l
n
i
Obta
Obtain
solid

Filtration
Decantatio
n
Centrifugatio
n
Distillation
Crystallisatio
n

Two / more
miscible liquids

Distillation /
fractional
distillation

Immiscible
liquids

Decantation

Mixture of small
amounts of solids

Chromatography

Filtration
Separating insoluble solids from liquids
Residue: insoluble material
Filtrate: liquid phase

Decantation
Separating insoluble solids from liquids if
the solids are large enough.
Separating immiscible liquids based on
different density of the liquids.

Separating
funnel

Centrifugation
Separating insoluble solids from liquid
The mixture is spun at high speed in a
centrifuge. The solid deposited at the
bottom of the tube and the liquid can be
carefully decanted off.

Separating Mixtures of
Solids

Based on different density

Some solids will float and others sink.
Eg. Collecting gold dust in the river sediment,
purifying ores of zinc / copper.

Based on different solubility

Some solids will dissolve and others are not

Based on magnetic properties

Magnetic solids can be separated first using
magnet.

Separating Mixtures of
Solids

Based on magnetic properties

Crystallisation

Separating dissolved solids from liquid.

Distillation / Fractional
Distillation
Separating mixtures of liquids
Based of different boiling points
Liquid with lowest boiling point distilled
first.

Chromatography
Separating mixtures of dissolved solid with
different solubility.
Pure substance will only have 1 spot.
This method can tell whether a solution has
become contaminated.

Distance moved by the substance

Rf = Distance moved by the solvent front

For separating non-coloured

substances, locating agent is
required to produce coloured
spots.

Purity & Identity of

Substances
Test of purity:
Paper chromatography pure substance
only have 1 spot.
The identity of sample can be checked by
comparing the Rf value to the sample known
to be pure.
Melting & boiling point test.
Identity can be checked against
the measured value for known
substances.

Purity
Purity is of crucial importance.
Eg.

Medicinal drugs (pharmaceuticals)

contaminating substances may have harmful
side-effects.
Food colouring need to be controlled as some
may cause problems (asthma, allergies).

Purity is often presented as %

Mass of pure substance
% Purity =Total mass of impure substance

Solubility

Solubility
If a substance dissolves in a solvent, it is
called soluble. Otherwise, it is called
insoluble.
More substance dissolves more
concentrated solution.
The concentration of the solution is the
mass of solute dissolved in a particular
volume of solvent (usually: g/L)

Solubility
If we keep adding more solid, a point is
reached where no more solids can dissolve
at that temperature called: saturated
solution
To get more solids dissolve increase T.
Unlike solids, gases will become less
soluble as T rises.
Solubility : mass of solute that will
saturate 100 grams of water at particular T.

Solubility Curves
Solubility curves: curves showing how the
solubility of a substance changes with
temperature.
When saturated solution is cooled some
solids crystallises out since the solvent can
hold less solute.
The solubility of gases in liquids affect the
gas used by a deep-sea diver (read p. 42).

Atoms
&
Molecules

Atoms & Molecules

MATTER
Pure substances:
Only one substance
No impurities

Elements:
Cannot be divided
into simpler
substances

Mixtures:
More than 1 substance
May be in different states

Compounds:
Made from 2 / more
elements
chemically bonded
together

Elements
A substance that cannot be broken down into
simpler substances by ordinary chemical methods.
There are 94 elements found naturally, but 8 of
them account for more than 98% of mass of the
Earths crust.

Silicon & oxygen (bound together in silicate rocks) make

up three-quarters of the Earths crust.

Only certain elements are able to form complex

compounds found in living things.
Human body contains 65% oxygen, 18% carbon, 10%
hydrogen, 3% nitrogen, 2% calcium, 2% other elements.

The smallest particle of any element is called

atom.

Elements

Elements are classified as metals and nonmetals

Metal

Non-metal

Good electrical conductors

Do not conduct electricity

Shiny
Strong and hard (in mixtures
called alloys)
Can be bent (malleable) and
stretched (ductile)
Good heat conductors
High density
High melting and boiling
points

Dull
Weak and soft

Brittle and break easily when

bent or stretched
Poor heat conductors
Lower density
Low melting and boiling
points

Compounds & Mixtures

Compound: a substance containing two or
more elements joined together by chemical
bonds.
Eg. Water, magnesium oxide
Mixture: a combination of two or more
substances without chemical bonds
between the substances. No chemical
reaction takes place in the formation
Eg. Mixture of salt and water

Compounds & Mixtures

Hydrogen

Oxygen

Mixture of
hydrogen
& oxygen

Each circle represents an atom

Pairs of atoms are called molecules

Chemical
reaction

Water

Mixture of
hydrogen
& oxygen

Compounds vs Mixtures

Composition

Compound
Fixed composition by
mass

Melting and
boiling points
Properties

Fixed MP and BP

Separation

Cannot be separated
Can easily be
by physical means
separated by
need chemical reaction physical methods

Arrangement of
atoms

Physical and chemical

properties different
from its elements

Mixture
Variable
composition by
mass
Variable MP and BP
Has same properties
as its components

Chemical Reactions

Chemical reactions:
Decomposition: where a compound breaks down
to form two or more substances.
Eg.
Copper(II) carbonate Heat Copper oxide + CO2
Synthesis: combination of two or more substances
Eg.
Heat
Magnesium + Oxygen
Magnesium oxide

Chemical Reactions
Chemical reactions:
New chemical substance(s) are formed.
Usually the process is not easily reversed.
Energy is often given out.
Physical change (eg. melting / dissolving):
The substance do not change identity.
They can be easily returned to their original
form by some physical process.

Kinetic Theory of Matter

Kinetic theory:
All matter is made up of very small
particles:
Different substances contain different types of
particles, such as atoms or molecules

The particles are moving all the time

Higher temperature higher average energy of
particles.

The freedom of movement and the

arrangement of the particles is different for
the three states of matter.

Diffusion
Particles spreading to fill the
space available to the
molecules.
Diffusion involves movement
of particles from higher
concentration to lower
concentration region, until the
particles are evenly spread.
Diffusion in liquid is much
slower than in gases.
Diffusion does not take place
in solids.

Diffusion of Gases
Not all gases diffuse at the same rate.
The speed of gas atoms or molecules are
high, but they are slowed down by other
particles in the air.

Diffusion
Heavier particles move slower than lighter
particles at same temperature.
Larger molecules diffuse slower than
smaller ones.
The pressure of a gas is the result of
collisions of fast-moving particles with the
walls of the container
Average speed of the particles increases
with increasing temperature.

Absolute Scale of
Temperature
Absolute scale of temperature is based on the behaviour
of gas.
A graph of volume of gas vs T will give a straight line,
which shows that the volume is proportional to the
temperature.
It was found that the volume of the gas reaches 0 at
-273C.
A graph of pressure vs T also show similar straight line.
It was found that the pressure is 0 at -273C.
Gas pressure is produced from particles collision with the
container walls, hence it can be concluded that at this
temperature, gas particles are not moving.
This temperature is known as absolute zero and the
scale is named after Lord Kelvin, which starts at 0K.

The Structure
of the Atom

Atomic Theory
Daltons theory:
A pure element is composed of atoms.
The atoms of each element are different in size
and mass.
Atoms are the smallest particles that take part
in a chemical reaction.
Atoms of different elements can combine to
make molecules of a compound.
Each element has its own symbol and they can
be combined to show the formulae of complex
compounds.

Atomic Structure
All atoms consisted of three subatomic particles
protons, neutrons, and electrons.
A single atom is so small and the mass can only
be compared with another, using mass
spectrometer. The element carbon is chosen
as the standard. This gives relative atomic
mass.
Carbon is given a relative atomic mass of 12.
Hydrogen is the lightest atoms of all. Calcium
(atomic mass of 40) is 40 times as heavy as
Hydrogen.

Subatomic Particles
Nucleus is made of protons and neutrons.
Protons and neutrons have almost the
same mass.
Electrons have virtually no mass.
Protons and electrons have equal
opposite electric charge, while neutrons
are electrically neutral.
Shell
proton
Identity of an
element is determine
N
+
+
N
from its proton number.

electron

neutron

Proton & Nucleon Number

Nucleon number (Atomic mass)

proton number (atomic number)

He

the number of protons and

neutrons in an atom

the number of protons in an atom

number of electrons = number of protons

Number of neutron = nucleon number proton number

Isotopes

Isotopes are atoms of same elements with

different mass number.
Same number of protons and electrons, but
different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus.

They have the same chemical properties,

but some physical properties are different.
Some isotopes have unstable nuclei; they
are radio-isotopes and can emit various
forms of radiation.

Relative Atomic Mass (Ar)

It is the average mass of an atom of an
element taking into account of its natural
isotopes and their percentage abundance.
Eg. Chlorine contains 2 isotopes Cl-35 and
Cl-37 in a ratio of 3:1 (75%:25%).

75
25

Ar
=3535.5
37

100
100

Ar can be found from periodic table.

Industrial Application of RadioIsotopes

Radioactive isotopes are widely used in
industry and medicine.
Examples:
Uranium-235 in nuclear power stations.
Detecting level of liquid in a container.
Checking thickness of sheets of plastic, paper, or
metal foil
Detecting leaks in gas or oil pipes
For medicine: kill biological cells that are sensitive
to radioactive emissions.
Sterilising medical instruments.

Radioactivity
Some isotopes are unstable. The extra
neutrons cause them to disintegrate or
decay spontaneously.
Each radio-isotope decays at its own rate. It
is a completely random process, unaffected
by temperature or whether it is part of a
compound / free element. nuclear
process, not chemical reaction.

Radioactivity
The time taken for the radioactivity in a
sample to halve is constant for a particular
radio-isotope. Half-life
This can be used to date wooden and
organic objects, age of rocks.

Electron
Arrangements

Natural light display

in the sky.
Collision of
energetic charged
particles with atoms
in the high altitude
atmosphere.

Electrons Arrangements in an
Atoms

Bohrs theory:
Electrons are in orbit
around the central nucleus
of the atom
Electron orbits are called
shells (or energy levels)
and have different
energies.
Shells further from the
nucleus have higher
energies
The shells are filled
starting with the one with
lowest energy.

n =1 2 en =2 8 en =3 18 e-

Electron Arrangement in an
Atoms

For atoms in the main-group (group I VIII /

0)
The number of electrons in the outer shell is equal
to the group number.
The number of shells is equal to the period number.
You can predict the position or identity of an
unknown atom given the number of the electron.
Eg. Atom X has 15 electrons. What is your prediction
of atom X?
Electron configuration = 2, 8, 5 group V, period 3
So the atom X is P.

Summary
There are three different physical states and
the changes can be made by changing T
and/or P.
Pure substance have precise MP and BP.
Impurity changes BP and MP.
Range of separation methods.
Difference of elements and compounds
The kinetic theory of an atom.
Diffusion in liquid & gases

Summary
Atomic structure
Subatomic particles
Isotopes and radio-isotopes
Electron arrangement