09.politecnico Di Torino Cementing Programme 2011

CHAPTER 9
FUNDAMENTALS OF THE
CEMENTING
OPERATIONS
09. CEMENTING PROGRAMME
1
30" CP
20" CASING
26 HOLE
13 CASING
16 OR 17 HOLE
12 HOLE
8 HOLE
9 CASING
7 CASING

2
CEMENT
9.1. INTRODUCTION
Portland cements are for sure the most produced and most commonly
used hydraulic binders not only in the Construction Industry but also in the
Oil Industry, where for their properties, availability and cost are a basic
material in well cementing operations.
The hydraulic binders, as the cement, are capable to set and develop
mechanical strength also in presence of water as a consequence of
chemical reactions taking place during the hydration process between the
mix water and the components present in the cement itself. Once set, the
cement maintains its properties, that is high compressive strength and low
permeability, even if exposed to aggressive waters for very long periods of
time.

3
9.2. PORTLAND CEMENTS COMPOSITION

The raw materials, from which Portland cements are obtained, contain four
essential components, that is:
calcium oxide (CaO),
silica (SiO2),
alumina (Al2O3)
ferric oxide (Fe2O3),
and several impurities such as:
magnesium oxide (MgO),
potassium oxide (K2O),
sodium oxide (Na2O),
lead oxide (PbO2),
zinc oxide (ZnO),
sulphur trioxide (SO3),
phosphates (PO4-3), etc.
The impurities have not to exceed a certain concentration otherwise they can have
negative effects on the cement performances.
4

Among the four main components, only one, that is CaO, acts as a base, while the
three others behave as anhydrides; consequently, it is easy understandable that during
the calcination process of the raw materials in the kiln, calcium salts of the three
anhydrides will appear one after the other as temperature increases and are:
Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite, Ca4Al2Fe2O10 or more simply C4AF
Tricalcium Aluminate, Ca3Al2O6 or simply C3A
Dicalcium Silicate, Ca2SiO4 or shortly C2S
Tricalcium Silicate, Ca3SiO5 or shortly C3S
C4AF and C3A are the first products to appear and melt in the kiln and for this reason
they are called melting compounds; they form the liquid phase of the clinker,
fundamental for the subsequent reactions which lead to the formation of the silicates
and, in particular, of C3S, from which the mechanical strengths of a cement depend.

5

In order to simplify the representation of Portland cement components and their
reactions, a special chemical notation has been adopted by cement chemists
according to which the various components are expressed as a sum of their oxides,
which have been further abbreviated as follows:
- Calcium Oxide, CaO = C
- Aluminium Oxide, Al2O3 = A
- Silica, SiO2 = S
- Ferric Oxide, Fe2O3 = F
- Magnesium Oxide, MgO = M
- Water, H2O = H
- Sodium Oxide, Na2O = N
- Potassium Oxide, K2O = K
- Lithium Oxide, Li2O = L
- Phosphoric Oxide, P2O5 = P
- Ferrous Oxide, FeO = f
- Titanium Oxide, TiO2 = T
- Sulphur Trioxide, SO3 =
- Carbon Dioxide, CO2 =
6
9.3. MANUFACTURING OF PORTLAND CEMENTS
Two basic raw materials are necessary to prepare a mixture from which Portland
cements are obtained, that is:
calcareous materials containing or producing calcium oxide (lime). Lime is present
in natural rocks such as: sedimentary and metamorphic limestones, corals, shell
deposits, cement rock (found on the island of Portland, UK, which has a composition
similar to Portland cements and from where the name of the Portland cements
derives) and also in artificial materials: precipitated calcium carbonates and other alkali
wastes from various industrial processes;
argillaceous materials, which provide alumina, silica, ferric oxide as well as many
other minerals, present as impurities. The most used of such materials are: clays,
shales, marls, mudstones, slate, schists, volcanic ashes, all of natural origin; blast
furnace slag and fly ashes come from artificial sources.

7

Once the raw materials are available, the manufacturing of Portland cements
requires the following steps:
1. the basic minerals are crushed, blended in such a proportion to obtain a mixture of
oxides corresponding to the specific chemical characteristics of the cement one wants
to manufacture;
2. the mixture is, then, ground to the desired fineness by adopting one of two possible
processes, that is:
the dry process
the wet process
In the dry process, the minerals are blended and ground in a dry state; the drying is
performed in rotary driers and the subsequent grinding in rotary mills which are
equipped with steel balls or other grinding devices. That portion of the mixture that
reaches the desired fineness is transported by a stream of air into storage silos, while
the coarser particles are returned to the mill for further milling.
The wet process differs from the dry process for the fact that water is added to the
mixture of minerals prior to its sending to the mill; the slurry, thus obtained, is more
easily ground to the planned fineness and, again, the particles, which pass a
calibrated vibrating screen, are collected in storage pits, while the bigger particles
return to the mill.
8

3. once the mixture has been properly ground and homogenized, it is sent to the kiln
where the manufacturing of cement takes place. The kiln is made by a rotating
cylinder, 70 m to 160 m long with a diameter of 2.5-4 m and slightly inclined (with a
slope of 25-85 mm every 1 m); it rotates at 60-240 revolutions per hour and this
rotation and the slope of the kiln makes the mixture moving along the kiln itself. The
temperature of the kiln is progressively increased (200-800-1100-1300-1500oC) and
then decreased (800oC) promoting a series of reactions which transform the raw
materials into clinker.
4. to obtain the finished cement, the clinker is blended and ground with a certain
amount of gypsum, CaSO42H2O (CH2) in percentages about 1.5-5%, whose main
function is to avoid a phenomenon known as flash-set;
5. once the cement comes out from the grinder, it is stored in large airtight silos to
protect it from humidity and carbon dioxide action, which can alter its characteristics
and performances.

9

10
9.4. CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF PORTLAND CEMENTS

In order that Portland cements develop their functions, it is necessary that the cement be
mixed with water in well defined ratios depending on cement type.
When water comes in contact with the cement a series of highly exothermic reactions
take place which cause the progressive set and hardening of the slurry:
the set occurs quite quickly, that is in few hours after water addition;
the hardening is a very long process lasting also several months and more.
It is worth to remind that during the first period of set and hardening, only the superficial
layer of the cement grains react (after several months from mixing, the hydration interests
only 6-9 m inside the grains; considering that 70% of cement grains have diameters in
the 10-100 m range, it is very easy to understand that the complete hydration of
cements requires very long times).
As said, Portland cements are formed by four main components: C4AF, C3A, C2S and
C3S. As these compounds react with water, they pass from their original anhydrous state
to a hydrated state; because the anhydrous compounds are much more soluble in water
than the hydrated forms, complete hydration of all the cement components ultimately
occurs. To understand how a Portland cement hydrates, the usual approach is to study
the behaviour of each single phase and then transform these single behaviours into a
multicomponent behaviour.
11
9.4.1. HYDRATION OF THE SILICATE PHASES

Usually the component which is taken as model is the tricalcium silicate, C3S, due
to its abundance (a cement is formed by silicates for the 80% and the C3S represents
the 70% of the silicates) and reactivity. Generally, when the silicates are contacted by
water, they hydrate forming calcium silicate hydrate and calcium hydroxide (also
called portlandite) according to the following reactions:
2C3S + 6H C3S2H3 + 3CH

2C2S + 4H C3S2H3 + CH
The compound C3S2H3 has a quasi-amorphous aspect and for this reason is usually
indicated as C-S-H gel. On the contrary, CH, Ca(OH)2, is crystalline and appears
as hexagonal plates. The C-S-H gel constitutes around the 70% of fully hydrated
Portland cements at ambient conditions and is considered as the main binder of
hardened cements.

12

In order to better explain what is happening when a cement hydrates, the hydration of the model
phase C3S is generally subdivided into five main stages or periods, that is:
Preinduction Period: during this period, which lasts only few minutes, a large increase in
temperature is observed, because the hydration reaction is highly exothermic. The anhydrous
surfaces of the C3S grains start to be hydrated and transformed into C-S-H gel, which, reaching
very quickly critical supersaturation conditions, precipitate on the same C 3S grains. On the
contrary, the concentration of CH continues to increase in solution because its saturation does not
reach the critical value.
Induction Period: during the induction period, the hydration activity is strongly reduced because
the C-S-H gel deposition on the C3S granules, occurred in the previous period, determines a
remarkable decrease in their permeability and, therefore, in their reactivity. In this period, the
precipitation of the C-S-H gel slowly continues, while the concentration in solution of calcium ions,
Ca+2, and hydroxyl groups, OH-, increases. When supercritical conditions are finally reached, the
precipitation of calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2, begins, which allows the hydration reactions to
recommence. The induction period, at ambient conditions, generally lasts a few hours. The
termination mechanism of the induction period is not completely clear. According to one theory, it
ends because osmotic forces are developed within the C-S-H gel layer as hydration continues and
these forces determine the burst of the gel layer with a large release of silicates into the solution
and the formation, again, of large amounts of C-S-H gel. Another theory suggests that the C-S-H
layer undergoes a morphological change which causes an increase in permeability to occur; as a
consequence, water can enter again into the grains restarting the hydration process.
13

Acceleration and Deceleration Periods: when the induction period ends, only a small amount
of C3S has undergone hydration. The remaining part of C3S hydrates during the periods called of
acceleration and deceleration, which together forms the setting period. The setting period lasts
several days at ambient conditions.
During the acceleration period, solid Ca(OH)2 crystallizes from the solution, being in supercritical
conditions, and the C-S-H gel restarts to deposit again into the water-filled pores. The hydrated
compounds grow in size, connect one with the others and a network of solid material is formed; in
this way, the system starts to develop its mechanical strengths. As the C-S-H gel and the
hydrates deposit, the permeability of the system decreases and, consequently, the reactions are
again decelerated, because of the difficulties water and the other ionic species have to move
within the network of solid particles (deceleration period).
Diffusion Period: during this period the hydration of the cement grains continuously slows down
due to the ever-decreasing porosity and permeability of the system; the network of hydrated
compounds becomes more and more dense and its strength increases. The duration of the
diffusion period, at ambient conditions, is extremely long, so that it is possible to sustain that total
hydration is never reached.

14

Thermogram Showing the Hydration Reactions
of the Tricalcium Silicate Phase, C3S
I. Preinduction
II. Induction
III. Acceleration
IV. Deceleration
V. Diffusion
15
9.4.2. HYDRATION OF THE ALUMINATE PHASES

The aluminates, C3A and C4AF, are very reactive species, in particular C3A, and their hydration
completes in very short times. They have a strong influence on slurry rheology (the silicates, on the
contrary, do not affect this aspect) and on the early development of mechanical strength of set
cements As happens with C3S, also in the case of C3A (C3A is usually taken as model for the
representation of aluminates hydration) the first reaction occurs between water and the surface of the
anhydrous solid, which very quickly leads to the precipitation of calcium aluminate hydrates:
2C3A + 27H C2AH8 + C4AH19 2C3AH6 + 15H
Differently from the calcium silicate hydrates, those of calcium aluminate are not amorphous but
crystalline and for this reason they are not able to form a protective impermeable layer on the C 3A
grains surface, protecting them from continuous hydration; therefore, in their case, no induction
period is observed, but hydration goes on to completion very rapidly.
If such uncontrolled hydration is allowed to occur without taking any precaution, severe problems can
be experienced (flash set), in particular for what regards rheology. To avoid this and control the C3A
hydration, 1,5-5% of gypsum is regularly added to the cement clinker prior to its final grinding. The
gypsum, CaSO42H2O, once in water releases calcium, Ca+2, and sulphate, SO4-2, ions, which react
with the aluminate and hydroxyls released by the C3A to form a calcium trisulfoaluminate hydrate,
known as the mineral ettringite:
C3A + 3CH2+ 26H C3A3C32H (ettringite)
16
9.4.2. HYDRATION OF THE ALUMINATE PHASES

Ettringite, whose appearance is that of needle-like crystals, precipitates on the C 3A surfaces
retarding their hydration; in other words, an artificial induction period is created. During this period,
the gypsum continues to dissolve and ettringite to precipitate; when the gypsum is totally consumed,
the retardation of C3A ends and the hydration reactions restart. Ettringite becomes unstable and is
transformed into calcium monosulfoaluminate hydrate:
C3A3C32H + 2C3A + 4H 3C3AC12H
The C3A, which has not reacted so far, forms again calcium aluminate hydrate, as expected.

17
9.4.3. HYDRATION OF PORTLAND CEMENTS

The reactions described above, of course, take place all at the same time, one influencing the others.
From a chemical standpoint, the Portland cement hydration can be considered as a sequence of
dissolution and precipitation reactions, which proceed simultaneously but at different rates; they can
be schematized by superimposing the thermogram of the C3S with that of the C3A.
Schematic Representation of
Portland Cement Hydration
Reactions.

18
9.5. API CLASSIFICATION OF PORTLAND CEMENTS

The standards concerned with cements and their slurries are contained in the document ISO
10426 Petroleum and natural gas industries Cements and materials for well cementing,
which consists of the following parts:
Part 1: Specification (based on API Specification 10A Specification for Cements and Materials
for Well Cementing, 23rd Edition, April 2002; indicated also as ANSI/API 10A/ISO 10426-12001).
Part 2: Testing of well cements (based on ANSI/API Recommended Practice 10B-2 (formerly
10B) Recommended Practice for Testing Well Cements, 1st Edition, July 2005).
Part 3: Testing of deepwater well cement formulations.
Part 4: Preparation and testing of foamed cement slurries at atmospheric pressure.
Part 5: Determination of shrinkage and expansion of well cement formulations at atmospheric
pressure.
According to the above mentioned ISO 10426 Part 1/API Specification 10A, all API cements are
produced by grinding Portland cement clinker, generally consisting of hydraulic calcium silicates
and aluminates and usually containing one or more forms of calcium sulphate as an interground
addition.
API cements are grouped into 8 classes, from A to H, and in 3 the grades: ordinary (O),
moderate sulphate resistant (MSR) and high sulphate resistant (HSR), as shown in the next slide.

19

Sulphate Resistance: formation waters always contain a certain amount of salts, in
particular sodium and magnesium sulphates. These sulphates are responsible of
reactions which affect the properties of set cements. In fact, they can react, after the
slurry setting, with the mineral portlandite, which is precipitated Ca(OH)2, to form
magnesium and sodium hydroxides, Mg(OH)2 and NaOH, and calcium sulphate,
CaSO4; the calcium sulphate, in its turn, can react with the aluminates producing
secondary ettringite. This secondary ettringite can expand too much causing the
damage and cracking of the set cement.
To limit the attack of sulphate-containing waters, cements with low C3A content are
produced.
However, this occurrence diminishes with increasing temperatures, because the
solubility of the two sulphates is low at high temperatures, so that, above 60oC, this
risk of sulphate attack can be considered negligible.

20

CLASS
ORDINARY
(O)
MODERATE SULPHATE
RESISTANT
(MSR)
HIGH SULPHATE
RESISTANT
(HSR)
(C3A not specified)
(3-8% C3A)
(< 3% C3A)
B
C
X (max 15%)
Classes and Grades of API Well Cements

(from API Specification 10A)
21

API
CLASS
TYPICAL COMPOSITION (%)
BLAINE
FINENESS
WATER
REQUIREMENT
C3S
-C2S
C3A
C4AF
cm2/g
45
27
11
1600
46
44
31
13
1600
46
53
19
11
2200
56
28
49
12
1500
38
38
43
1500
38
38
50
30
12
1800
44
50
30
12
1600
38
Typical Chemical Composition, Fineness and Water Requirements of

Portland Cements
(from API Specification 10A)
22
Currently, the cement routinely used in Eni E&P operations is the Class G
cement; in fact, the last two classes of cements, Class G and H, have been
developed in the last years to take into account the remarkable improvements
achieved in accelerating or retarding the setting times of cement slurries by chemical
means. The manufacturers can not add any chemicals at all to these cements,
differently from what was done with the Class D, E and F cements (these cements
were called retarded cements; the retardation was due to their low content in C3S
and C3A and to their coarser fineness), in which glycols and acetates were added to
improve the grinding process of clinker, but inducing interferences with the normal
additives used in slurries preparation.
Classes E and F cements are rarely manufactured and used today in cementing
operations and the idea is to cancel them as API cements.

23
9.6. MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF PORTLAND CEMENTS

The main characteristics of a cement slurry regard:
- density: the density of a slurry usually ranges between 1.30-2.40 kg/L and is preferably
measured by using the pressurized fluid density balance or the classical mud balance;
- compressive strength: this test is performed to evaluate set cement and cement blend slurries
for resistance to thermally induced strength retrogression. To do this, the cement or cement blend
set slurry samples are exposed to temperature and pressure for varying periods of time and
observed for changes in compressive strength. The procedure involves comparing the
compressive strength observed after some established initial periods (i.e. 24 h, 48 h, 72 h) with
that measured after longer periods (i.e. 28 days). Samples that exhibit lower compressive strength
values after the longest periods may be considered to be subject to strength retrogression and not
suitable for field use at that temperature and pressure. The temperature at which thermally
induced strength retrogression occurs is commonly considered to be about 110-120oC. At these
temperatures, the C-S-H gel undergoes a structural change, which usually causes a reduction in
compressive strength and an increase in permeability of set cements. This phenomenon consists
in a transformation of the C-S-H gel into a new phase called alpha-dicalcium silicate hydrate (C2SH), which is highly crystalline and much more dense than the original C-S-H gel. As a
consequence, a reduction in volume or shrinkage of the hydrated phases takes place with
deleterious effects on the integrity of the set cement. For this reason when cementing wells at
temperatures >110oC, the silica content in the slurry has to be increased by adding to the base
Portland cement 35-40% BWOC ground quartz, usually silica sand or silica flour, or by intergrounding the Portland cement clinker with quartz (Geocem cement) or by using specially
designed cement slurries (i.e. DensCrete).
24
9.6. MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF PORTLAND CEMENTS

-thickening time: thickening time tests are designed to determine the length of time that a
cement slurry will remain pumpable in a well under simulated downhole conditions of pressure
and temperature. The slurry under testing is evaluated in a pressurized consistometer, which
incorporates a rotating cylindrical slurry container equipped with a stationary paddle assembly, all
enclosed in a pressure vessel capable of withstanding the pressures and temperatures expected
downhole;
- filtrate: fluid-loss tests are designed to measure the slurry dehydration during and immediately
after the completion of the placement phase. It ranges between 30-1500 mL/30;
- permeability: this test is used to determine the relative permeability of a set cement sample to
liquids or gases; the results can be used to enhance the design of cement slurry formulations,
though they do not always provide an accurate indication of the actual permeability of set cements
under downhole conditions. The permeability of set cements is very low;
- slurry stability: the objective of this test is to verify the static (quiescent) stability of cement
slurries, after these have been conditioned, to simulate their placement in the wellbore. The
slurries are then left in static conditions for a certain period of time to determine if any free fluid or
particle settling occurs; both measurements are required because free fluid can be formed with
little or no sedimentation and sedimentation can take place without any free fluid appearance;
- rheological properties: the rheology of cement slurries (viscosity, yield point, gel strengths) is
determined with the rotational viscometer and are used to calculate friction losses during slurry
placement and to design the hydraulic programme.

25
9.7. CONVENTIONAL PORTLAND CEMENTS SLURRIES
The Portland cement slurries find application in the most varied operational
conditions, such as:
temperatures from below 0oC, as it occurs in Arctic areas;
up to 350oC and more as can be observed in geothermal wells or in tertiary recovery
activities where thermal methods are applied;
pressures from few tens of kg/cm2 as encountered in shallow wells;
up to 2000 kg/cm2, which can be faced in deep and ultra-deep wells;
formations that can be highly fractured with very low fracture pressures or strongly
overpressured;
presence of corrosive and sour fluids.

26
9.7. CONVENTIONAL PORTLAND CEMENTS SLURRIES

To cope with all these very different situations, which often can be encountered in the
same well as the casing strings deepen, the slurries have to be properly designed
taking into account the actual well conditions. This is made possible because during
the years many very effective chemicals have been developed and introduced in the
design of cement slurries, rendering them flexible and adaptable to any situations.
Therefore, the Portland cement slurries, depending on their composition and
application, can be classified as follows:
accelerated slurries with short thickening times and early compressive strength
development suitable for low temperature wells;
retarded slurries with long thickening times as required in high temperature wells;
lightweight slurries to be used in wells characterized by low fracture gradients;
weighted slurries to be used in wells with very high formation pressures;
dispersed slurries, which are particularly necessary in deep wells with high
temperatures and pressures where high densities but also a good rheology are
essential;
reduced filtrate slurries to be used in front of permeable formations and for
minimizing formation damage;
lost circulation control materials which allow to restore circulation in fractured or
low fracture gradients wells.
27
9.7.1. ACCELERATED SLURRIES

Accelerated slurries are used when the necessity to shorten the setting time
and/or to accelerate the hardening process arises. They are generally employed
for cementing surface or intermediate casing strings in wells showing a bottom hole
temperature below 50C and are mandatory below 25C, where normal slurries react
too slowly and the time spent on WOC (wait on cement) becomes excessively long.
Sometimes, they are used to offset the set delay caused by other additives such as
dispersants and fluid loss control agents.
These slurries are obtained by adding to the cement inorganic salts, the most
common of which are: calcium chloride (CaCl2) and sodium chloride (NaCl); in
theory, other numerous salts, like silicates (i.e. sodium silicate), sulphates (i.e.
gypsum), carbonates, aluminates, nitrates, nitrites can be added to the cement as
well as some organic compounds (i.e. calcium formate, oxalic acid), but in practice
the choice is limited to the chlorides for their easy availability and low cost.
Acceleration can be also obtained by decreasing the mixing water amount; the
densified slurries are especially useful for cementing surface casings in cold weather
conditions and for setting cement plugs which require short pumping times and very
rapid strength development.
28

Mechanism of Action: Calcium Chloride, CaCl2, is the most common accelerator
used to shorten the thickening time of cement slurries. The accelerating action of
Portland cement slurries to CaCl2 additions involves different and complex physical
and chemical phenomena. The presence of chloride ions can affect the structure of
the C-S-H gel coating, increasing its permeability and, therefore, the hydration rate of
the C3S phase; also C3A hydration is accelerated. Furthermore, CaCl2 significantly
modifies the distribution of ionic species in the aqueous phase of the slurry thus
fastening the hydration reactions.

29

CaCl2 ACTION ON THICKENING TIME AND MECHANICAL STRENGTHS
CaCl2
THICKENING TIME (h:min)
(% Weight on Cement)
0
2
4
32oC
40oC
45oC
4:00
1:17
1:15
3:30
1;11
1:02
2:32
1:10
0:58
MECHANICAL STRENGTHS (atm) vs TEMPERATURE

CaCl2
at 16oC
at 27oC
at 38oC
(%)
6h
12 h
24 h
6h
12 h
24 h
6h
12 h
24 h
0
2
4
N.S.
9
9
4
34
46
29
106
110
3
29
38
26
72
88
89
176
203
26
78
93
59
167
180
125
278
313

30
9.7.2. RETARDED SLURRIES

Retarded slurries are used in order to cement intermediate and deep casing strings exposed
to high temperatures when long thickening and setting times are required in order to complete
the cementing job in the planned time; they are obtained by adding to the neat cement additives,
called retarders, whose primary function is to tune the pumpability time of the slurry according to
the operational needs.
The commonly used retarders belong to the following main chemical classes:
Lignosulphonates
Hydrocarboxylic Acids (gluconate salts, citric acid)
Cellulose Derivatives (CMHEC)
Organic Posphonates
Inorganic Compounds (boric acid, phosphonic acid, chromic acid, zinc and lead oxides, borax)
Lignosulphonates constitute the commonly used retarders for most temperature conditions and are
added alone (for medium to medium-high temperatures) or blended with other chemicals, such as
organic (gluconates) and inorganic (borax, zinc oxide) acids and their salts, when very high
temperatures are encountered.
Service Companies commercialize other efficient products for extreme conditions, but very often
their chemical composition and mechanism of action are not completely known to the users;
therefore, it results very difficult or impossible to assign them to a specific chemical category.
31

To explain the way retarders fulfil their function, many theories on their mechanism of action
have been proposed, such as:
Adsorption Theory: the retardation is due to the adsorption of the retarder on the surface of
C3S and C3A grains, thereby limiting the contact of these phases with water.
Precipitation Theory: in this case the retardation effect is due to the reaction of the retarder
with the calcium and/or hydroxyls ions present in the aqueous phase of the slurry with the
deposition of an insoluble and impermeable layer around the cement grains.
Nucleation Theory: according to this theory the adsorption of the retarder takes place directly
on the nuclei of the hydration products, impeding their subsequent growth.
Complexation Theory: calcium ions are chelated by the retarder, thus preventing the
production of the hydrated phase portlandite, whose appearance terminates the induction
period.
It is highly probable that several, if not all, of these mechanisms are involved
contemporaneously in the retardation of a slurry depending on the chemical nature of the
retarder (very often the retarders are mixtures of different chemical compounds) and cement
composition.
Mechanism of Action: lignosulphonates retard the slurry thickening and setting by acting on
the kinetics of C3S and also C3A hydration reactions, through a combination of the adsorption
and nucleation theories.
32

LIGNOSULPHONATES (HR-12) EFFECT ON THICKENING TIME OF CLASS D CEMENT SLURRIES
HR-12
%
DEPTH (m)
TEMPERATURE
(oC)
FRESH
WATER
SALT
SATURATED
WATER
0
0,15
3048
3048
62
62
2:30
>8:00
2:40
7:00
0
0,15
3658
3658
78
78
2:00
>7:00
1:40
5:00
0
0,15
0,30
0,50
4267
4267
4267
4267
97
97
97
97
1:30
1:30
4:30
N.D.
1:30
N.D.
3:20
N.D.
0,15
0,30
0,50
4877
4877
4877
120
120
120
1:00
2:00
4:00
N.D.
N.D.
4:20
0,80
1,00
5487
5487
149
149
2:00
3:30
2:00
N.D.

33
9.7.3. LIGHT WEIGHT SLURRIES

Light-weight slurries are used when slurries with densities lower than normal
are required, such as in case of performing a cementing job in formations
characterized by low fracture gradients, in particular at shallow depth, or when
circulation losses problems are expected. To obtain light-weight slurries, four
main classes of products are generally used, that is:
water extenders: these products allow the addition of very high volumes of
water with respect to neat cements. The most common additives belonging to
this category are: bentonite, sodium silicates, diatomite;
low-density materials: the density of these materials is sensibly lower than
that of the neat cement to which they are added also at significant
concentrations. Belong to this class materials such as: perlite (volcanic rock
formed by aluminium silicates, d=0.128 kg/L), gilsonite (naturally occurring
hydrocarbon, asphaltite, d=1.07 kg/L), powdered coal, ceramic or glass
microspheres;
gaseous extenders: nitrogen or air can be used to prepare foamed cements,
characterized by extremely low densities, but still sufficient compressive
strengths,
composite slurries: such as the Schlumberger LiteCrete systems.
34

1. Water Extenders: Bentonite
Bentonite is one of the most common materials used to decrease the density of a slurry
because of its availability and low cost. Bentonite can be added to a cement in
concentrations up to 20% BWOC, but above 6% the use of a dispersant is necessary to
reduce the slurry viscosity and gel strength. Bentonite can be dry-blended with the cement
or can be prehydrated in water before the cement addition. According to API/ISO
specifications, only pure untreated bentonite should be used in well cements.
Normally, bentonite is used at concentrations of 4-8% BWOC. API recommends that for each
1% increase in bentonite concentration, the increase in water be 5.3% BWOC for all classes
of cements; however, laboratory testing is recommended to establish the optimum water
requirement for each cement and bentonite sample.
As expected, the density of the slurry decreases and its yield increases as the bentonite
percentage increases, passing, in case of a class G cement, from an initial value of 1.90 kg/L
and 75.7 L/100 kg with no bentonite down to 1.42 kg/L and up to 189.4 L/100 kg for a 20%
bentonite addition. Also the fluid loss improves with higher bentonite concentrations.
The addition of Bentonite causes a decrease in the mechanical strength of a set cement
slurry.

35

1. Water Extenders: Bentonite
Because the presence of high concentrations of calcium ions in the aqueous phase of a
slurry strongly affects the ability of a bentonite to hydrate, the extending properties of
bentonite are greatly improved if the material is allowed to hydrate in the mix water prior to
slurry mixing (prehydrated bentonite). A slurry prepared with 2% prehydrated bentonite is
equivalent to a slurry obtained with 8% of dry-blended bentonite. The complete hydration of a
good quality bentonite takes place in more or less 30. The thickening time and the final
compressive strength of prehydrated bentonite slurries are similar to those of dry-blended
slurries at the same density.
The bentonite can be prehydrated in fresh water and also in sea water or light brine, but in
the last case the salts limit the hydration, reducing the yield of the slurry; highly saline (salt
saturated) waters further decrease the bentonite hydration and are, therefore, not
recommended. In this case, attapulgite (called salt gel), another clay mineral, is frequently
used, but, unlike bentonite, without having any improvement in fluid loss control.

36
CLASS G CEMENT (44% WATER)
BENTONITE
(%)
WATER
(L/100kg)
SLURRY
DENSITY
(kg/L)
SLURRY YIELD
(L/100 kg)
0
2
4
44,1
54,8
65,3
1,89
1,80
1,73
75,7
87,0
98,3
6
8
10
76,0
86,6
97,2
1,67
1,62
1,57
109,6
120,9
132,1
12
16
20
107,9
129,1
150,4
1,52
1,47
1,43
143,4
166,7
189,4

37

2. Low Density Materials: Microspheres
Microspheres are small gas-filled beads characterized by very low density
(between 0.2-0.9 kg/L). They are, therefore, essentially used for preparing high
strength, low permeability and very light slurries with densities as low as 1.02 kg/L
without making use of gaseous extenders.
The main limitation of microspheres is their tendency to crush and collapse as depth
and hydrostatic pressure increase; as a consequence the density of the slurries
containing microspheres increases at bottom hole conditions with respect to
surface. For this reason, microspheres are not suitable for cementing deep wells
with high hydrostatic pressures.
Two main types of microspheres are currently available:
glass microspheres;
ceramic microspheres.
In slurry preparation ceramic microspheres are generally used because of their
availability and lower cost with respect to glass microspheres.
38

2. Low Density Materials: Microspheres
Ceramic microspheres (called also cenospheres) are obtained from ashes produced in
coal-burning power plants; their main constituents are silica and alumina, therefore, they
exhibit a certain pozzolanic behaviour, in particular at high curing temperatures. The beads are
filled with a CO2-N2 mixture. The particle size distribution of ceramic microspheres is less
homogeneous than that of the glass counterpart and ranges between 20-500 m; furthermore,
they are heavier with density in the 0.6-0.9 kg/L range. For this reason higher concentrations
of ceramic microspheres are required to obtain low density slurries. Their use is not
recommended in wells where pressures exceed 310 kg/cm2 values.
PRESSURE
SLURRY 1
SLURRY 2
SLURRY 3
kg/cm2
psi
kg/cm2
psi
kg/cm2
psi
kg/cm2
psi
1.08
9.0
1.26
10.5
1.44
12.0
35
500
1.16
9.7
1.37
11.4
1.52
12.7
70
1000
1.25
10.4
1.40
11.7
1.57
13.1
140
2000
1.32
11.0
1.45
12.1
1.61
13.4
210
3000
1.34
11.2
1.49
12.4
1.64
13.7
280
4000
1.37
11.4
1.52
12.7
1.68
14.0

39

2. Low Density Materials: Foamed Cements
If formations characterized by extremely low fracture pressures (naturally fractured rocks,
depleted reservoirs, caverns, etc. where the fracture pressure gradient could assume values
below 1 kg/cm2/10 m) have to be cemented, the standard light-weight slurries are not suitable
because they still exhibit a density which is much higher than deemed necessary; the
possibility to further lighten these systems is hindered by the fact that densities below 1.32-1.44
kg/L are reachable only by strongly increasing the water content or the concentration of the low
density materials, compromising the mechanical strength and the permeability of the set
cements.
In these conditions, the only solution is to prepare ultra-light slurries by additions of
microspheres, as seen in the previous paragraph, or by adopting foamed cements or
specially-designed slurries.
Foamed cements are dispersions which contain a base cement (neat or light-weight), a gas
(usually nitrogen because inert or, in some cases, air), a foaming agent and foam stabilizers.
The foam density is tuned by simply varying the concentration of gas in the slurry; therefore,
slurries with density between that of neat cement systems (1.80-1.92 kg/L) and that of the gas
(practically close to zero) can be theoretically prepared, though in practical terms densities in
the 0.70-1.75 kg/L range are usually designed.

40

41
9.7.4. WEIGHTED SLURRIES

Weighted slurries, that is slurries with a density higher than that of neat cement slurries, are
generally designed for deep wells, where high pressures and temperatures are encountered,
or when unstable formations require very heavy systems in order to be contained. In these
cases, the slurries must be designed at a density higher or at least equal to the mud density
used while drilling. Therefore, slurries with density above 2.00 kg/L and up to 2.40-2.60 kg/L
are sometimes needed to maintain the control of such wells.
To increase the slurry density, two main approaches can be followed, that is:
reduction of the water/cement ratio;
addition of weighting materials with specific gravity as high as possible.
1. Water/Cement Ratio Reduction

In this case the amount of mix water is reduced below the ratios usually recommended by API
for each class of cements in accordance with the slurry density required. The main problem
this solution poses is the difficulty in obtaining at the same time acceptable rheological
properties and good fluid loss control. The maximum density reachable with this method is
around 2.13 kg/L. The main advantage is the low cost of the solution.

42

2. Weighting Agents
The addition of very heavy materials has to be used when slurry densities well above
2.13-2.20 kg/L are needed. A high density material to act as a good weighting agent must
possess some basic characteristics, that is:
compatibility with the cement and its additives. For instance, if barite is used as
weighting material, it must have a granulometry similar to that of the cement in use,
otherwise settling can occur if too large particles are present or viscosity and gel increase
can be expected in case of too small sized particles;
their water requirement has to be as low as possible. High water demand reduces the
density of the slurry and increases volumes of weighting materials and costs;
the material has to be inert and not interfere with the hydration reactions of the slurry.
The materials most commonly used as weighting agents are:
barite (BaSO4);
hematite (Fe2O3);
manganese tetraoxide (Mn3O4);
ilmenite (FeTiO3);
sand (SiO2).

43

2.1. Weighting Agents: Barite
Barite is a natural occurring mineral, universally added to increase drilling mud weight. It is
mainly formed by barium sulphate (BaSO4), but other minerals (i.e. carbonates and sulphates of
heavy metals) can be present, depending on the source and the purity. The purity of the mineral
strongly affects the specific gravity of this material, which can in fact vary between 4.22 and 4.33
kg/L. The water requirement of barite is rather low (around 23 L/100 kg), but sensibly higher than
that of hematite and ilmenite, which makes this product causing a consistent diminution of
compressive strength of the set slurry (from 1/3 up to with respect to a neat cement slurry).
Usually barite has a particle size distribution around 45 m for 85-90%, very similar to that of the
cement.
MATERIAL
DENSITY
Kg/L
ABSOLUTE
VOLUME
(L/kg)
COLOUR
WATER
REQUIREMENT
(L/100 kg)
ILMENITE
HEMATITE
BARITE
Mn3O4
4,45
4,95
4,33
4,84-4,90
0,225
0,200
0,234
BLACK
RED
WHITE
REDDISH
0,0
2,0
20,0

44

CLASS A
CEMENT
(kg)
CLASS D
CEMENT
(kg)
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
BARITE
WATER
(L)
SLURRY
DENSITY
(g/L)
BARITE/SLURRY
RATIO
(q/m3)
(kg)
25
50
75
100
150
200
46,0
51,7
57,5
63,2
69,0
80,5
92,0
1880
1980
2060
2120
2160
2240
2300
12,8
14,0
14,8
15,5
16,1
17,0
17,5
25
50
75
100
150
200
38,0
43,7
49,5
55,2
61,0
72,5
84,0
2000
2100
2180
2220
2280
2320
2380
14,5
15,5
16,3
16,9
17,4
18,1
18,6
Class A: d = 3,15, w/c = 46, abs. volume = 31,7 L

Class D: d = 3,25, w/c = 38, abs. volume = 30,8 L
Barite: d = 4,25, b/c = 23, abs. volume = 23,5 L
45
9.7.5. DISPERSED SLURRIES

Are named dispersed slurries, those slurries whose rheological properties have been
enhanced by the addition of specific chemicals called dispersants or also friction
reducers. Their use is particularly necessary in deep wells with high temperatures and
pressures which require very heavy slurries; in these wells normal slurries can not be pumped
in turbulent flow (a flow which ensures a better hole cleaning and slurry placement)
because of their poor rheology. The dispersants, on the contrary, improve dramatically
viscosity, yield strength and gels of a slurry, permitting to obtain relatively low friction losses
with the high flow rates necessary to reach turbulent flow conditions.
The most common dispersants used in cementing operations belong to the following
categories:
plasticizers;
superplasticizers.
For what concerns the mechanism of action, both plasticizers and superplasticizers behave
more or less in a similar way; in fact, most dispersants are anionic polymers and,
consequently, they are adsorbed (adsorption mechanism) on the positively charged cement
grains, from the initial phase of cement hydration to the final set, favouring their mutual
repulsion and consequently their dispersion.

46

PLASTICIZERS
The main chemicals, used as cement dispersants and belonging to this category, are well
known products, regularly present in drilling mud formulation, that is:
lignosulphonates and modified lignosulphonates;
hydrocarboxylic acids: citric acid, tartaric acid, salicylic acid, gluconic acid and glucoheptonic
acid.
The plasticizers behave also as retarders and have been described in the paragraph dedicated
to this category of cement additives; because of their two-fold effect, the use of
lignosulphonates and hydroxycarboxylic acids has to be carefully evaluated to avoid undesired
secondary effects.
SUPERPLASTICIZERS
The products of this category represent the most commonly used dispersants for well cements
and are:
polysulphonated polymers: polynaphthalene sulphonate (PNS);
polymelamine sulphonate (PMS), polystyrene sulphonate (PSS);
polycarboxylate-based products.

47

CLASS D
PNS (CFR3)
7 5/8 Casing in 9 Hole
Temp.
Water
Density
PV
YP
Flow Rate for

Turbulence
Annular
Velocity for
Turbulence
kg/litre
cp
gF/100 cm2
litre/min
m/min
38
1.97
50.4
4.2
1860
114
0.50
38
1.97
42.8
0.0
940
57
0.75
38
1.97
39.2
0.0
860
53
38
38
1.97
29.4
27.3
2800
172
0.50
38
38
1.97
7.9
0.25
350
22
0.75
38
38
1.97
21.1
0.0
460
29
60
38
1.97
22.5
40.6
3160
194
0.50
60
38
1.97
16.6
0.0
360
22
0.75
60
38
1.97
15.4
0.0
335
20
88
38
1.97
15.7
41.3
3250
200
0.50
88
38
1.97
23.7
2.0
1030
63
0.75
88
38
1.97
13.2
0.25
490
30
% BWOC

48
9.7.6. REDUCED FILTRATE SLURRIES

When a cement slurry is placed in front of a permeable formation and is subject to a
differential pressure the fluidloss process takes place; as a result, a certain amount of
water is lost into the formation and if this process is not adequately controlled serious
operational consequences can arise, such as:
the density of the slurry tends to increase beyond safety limits if the water content decreases
too much. This determines an increase of the hydrostatic head of the slurry and a progressive
worsening of its rheological properties with negative effects on friction losses, because higher
pump rates are required to achieve the planned flow conditions;
a decrease in water content leads to shorter thickening times which can compromise the
success of the cementing job;
during static periods, i.e. during wait-on-cement, annular bridging can occur, particularly in
very narrow annuli or in correspondence of hole restrictions with risks of formation fluid
movement (gas migration).
Usually, normal neat cement slurries without any fluid-loss control agents show an API filtrate
around 1000-1500 mlitre/30. This value can be considered acceptable in normal wells, but as
soon as the operative conditions become more severe (deep wells, high differential pressures
and temperatures, very permeable formations, sensitive and reactive formations) the API
filtrate has to be strongly reduced, even down to 20-50 mlitre/30. To reach this objective
fluid-loss control materials have to be added to cement slurry formulations.

49
9.7.6. REDUCED FILTRATE SLURRIES

Many additives are available which can control fluid-loss (more or less the same seen for
drilling muds); they belong to two main categories:
particulate materials, that is materials characterized by very small dimensions so that they
can enter the filter cake and lodge among the cement particles decreasing its permeability.
Additives with this behaviour are: bentonite, carbonate powder, carbon black, asphaltenes,
lattices, polyvinylalcohols. The mechanism of action of this category of fluid-loss control
agents, which are characterized by small particles with a wide range of granular size
distribution, is the physical plugging of the pore throats of the filter cake and the consequent
reduction in its permeability.
water soluble polymers, which operate by increasing at the same time the viscosity of the
aqueous phase and decreasing the permeability of the filter cake. A wide variety of polymers
exhibits these properties such as: cellulose derivatives (CMHEC, HEC, HPC)), non-ionic
polymers (Guar Gum derivatives, PVA: polyvynilalcohol)), anionic polymers (SPS:
sulphonated polystyrene) and also cationic polymers (PEI, polyethylene imine). Synthetic
polymers represent today the most common fluid-loss control agents. These materials control
fluid-loss through a combination of the two mechanisms described above, though the main
action is always due to the physical plugging of the pores of the filter cake. Water-soluble
polymers can form weakly bonded colloidal aggregates in solution, which are sufficiently
stable to become wedged on the filter cake constrictions. They can also be adsorbed on the
surfaces of the grains, thus decreasing the size of the pores to occlude. The effect on water
mobility, due to an increase in its viscosity, is by far less important than the mechanical
plugging action.
50
9.7.7. LOST CIRCULATION PREVENTION MATERIALS

Occurrence of circulation losses during cementing can have serious consequences on the
final result of a job and are very difficult to combat at this stage. Luckily, in most cases, the risk
to incur in circulation losses is experienced during drilling and can be anticipated by a careful
analysis of pore and fracture pressures; therefore, timely and appropriate countermeasures
can be adopted before starting the cementing operation, in such a way to eliminate or
significantly reduce the problem.
If the circulation loss can not be eliminated before the cementing job, some options can be
adopted to limit the consequences:
the first is to maintain the downhole pressure during the job below that caused by the mud at
its maximum equivalent circulating density. This is obtained by reducing the density of the
slurry, limiting the height of the cement column or minimizing the friction losses during the
slurry placement. The use of light-weight slurries aids in limiting circulation losses;
the second option consists in pumping a plugging material as a spacer in front of the slurry,
add lost circulation materials, LCMs, to the slurry itself or use special additives which impart to
the slurry thixotropic properties;
the last option is to use a combination of the many techniques available, a solution, which is
often necessary, when trying to prevent cement losses in highly fractured or vugular
formations.

51
9.7.7. LOST CIRCULATION PREVENTION MATERIALS

Type
Nature of Particles
Amount Used
Water Required
Graded
5 to 50%
33%
Expanded
15 to 60%
50%
Walnut Shells
Graded
1 to 5%
14%
Coal
Graded
1 to 10%
33%
Lamellar
Cellophane Flakes
Flaked
0,15 to 2%
None
Fibrous
Nylon
Short Fibres
0,3 to 1,2%
None
Glass
Long Fibres
2 to 3%
None
Granular
Material
Gilsonite
Perlite

52
9.7.8. ANTIFOAM AGENTS

Many cement additives can cause the slurry to foam during mixing. Excessive slurry foaming
can have several undesirable consequences on slurry performances, such as:
slurry gellation;
cavitation problems during pumping with loss of hydraulic pressure;
slurry density underestimation. If air is entrapped in the slurry at surface, the density of the
slurry results reduced and consequently more cement is added to the slurry to respect the
planned value; but as soon as the slurry is pumped downhole, the air becomes compressed
and the density of the slurry increases above what designed. The densitometer at surface
conditions underestimates the true downhole slurry density.
To combat this problem, antifoam agents are usually added to the mix-water or are dryblended with the cement. Antifoam agents work by causing a shift in surface tension, alter the
dispersibility of solids or both things together, so that the conditions required to produce a foam
are not anymore present. In general, antifoamers should have the following characteristics:
insoluble in the foaming system;
a surface tension lower than that of the foaming system.
In well cementing two classes of antifoam agents are commonly used:
polyglycol ethers;
silicones.
53
9.7.9. STRENGTHENING AGENTS

During the last years, more attention has been paid by the Industry to enhance other
mechanical characteristics of a set cement slurry than compressive strength, in particular its
flexural and shock resistance capabilities.
Some materials, which can be used to improve the strength of a cement, are the following:
Fibrous Materials: some fibrous materials, such as nylon fibres with fibre lengths up to 2.5
mm, when added to a slurry in concentrations between 0.15% and 0.5% can increase its
resistance to the stresses caused by perforations, hydraulic fracturing and formation
movement.
Metallic Microribbons: these products were introduced to improve the impact resistance,
toughness and tensile strength of set cements. The concentration of the microribbons is
usually about 1.5% by volume of slurry. This system is particularly effective for kick-off plugs.
Rubbers: rubber chops, added in concentration up to 5% BWOC, considerably increase the
impact resistance and flexural strength of cements.

54
9.8. SPECIAL PORTLAND CEMENT SLURRIES

As drilling technology advancements have made possible the exploration and production of
hydrocarbons in ever more demanding situations, such as deep waters, cold climates,
ultradeep wells and particular requirements have arisen regarding environmental safeguard,
long-life well integrity, safety, etc., the need for ad-hoc cement slurries has become a priority
leading to the development of special systems, to be used when expressly necessary.
Among the many formulations nowadays available, the following systems are common in these
demanding environments:
thixotropic cement slurries, which are preferably used in case of circulation losses, gas
migration control, casing repair and remedial cementing jobs;
expansive cement and lattices-based cement slurries to be used for enhancing zonal
isolation and mitigate gas migration occurrences;
cement slurries for deep and ultradeep wells where the high temperatures can cause the
retrogression of the mechanical strength of standard formulations;
cement slurries for low temperature wells as encountered in Arctic regions and in deep
waters;
cement slurries for sour environments;
flexible and swellable cement slurries with enhanced mechanical performances and
improved bonding characteristics;
special cements with engineered particle size (EPS) distribution to be used in particularly
problematic cementing jobs (CemCrete and CemStone systems).
55
9.9. CASING EQUIPMENT

56
9.9. CASING EQUIPMENT
Several devices are installed or attached to a casing string to fulfil different purposes
and functions. For example:
the lower end of a casing string is protected by a guide shoe, whose aim is to
facilitate its running into the hole;
at a certain distance from the casing shoe, one or few more joints above it, a collar
(floating or automatically filled) is installed to provide also a seat for the cementing
plugs and to avoid the flowback of the slurry;
on the outside of the casing, centralizers, scratchers and stop collars are
attached in critical sections to assure acceptable casing centralization and enhance
mud removal operations.

57
9.9.1. CASING SHOES AND COLLARS
Guide shoes are a very simple and

economic devices. They are installed
on the lowermost joint of a casing
string and have a rounded nose, whose
function is to guide the casing through
dog-legs and restrictions in the
borehole.
The
round
nose
and
internal
accessories are constructed with
drillable materials such as cement or
aluminium; the external case, on the
contrary, is made usually by K-55 or N80 steel grade.
STANDARD
GUIDE SHOE
DOWN-JET
GUIDE SHOE
GUIDE SHOE
58
FLOAT SHOES
FLOAT
COLLARS
Float equipment consists of specially

designed casing shoes and collars which
contain check valves (ball valves, flapper
valves, poppet valves) which prevent wellbore
fluids from entering into the casing string.
Consequently, as the casing is run into the
hole, the casing is filled from the surface with
mud. The frequency of filling is usually once
every 5-10 joints, but this decision has to be
based on the casing collapse resistance.
When the casing reaches the bottom, mud is
pumped in order to completely fill the casing
joints and circulation is established to clean
the well.
During casing joints addition and once the
cement slurry has been displaced, the float
valve installed in the casing shoe or/and in the
collar allows preventing the mud or the cement
slurry to flow back into the casing string.
FLOAT SHOES AND COLLARS

59
AUTOMATIC FILL-UP VALVES:

FLAPPER (LEFT), POPPET (RIGHT)
Automatic fill-up shoes and collars contain check

valves (flapper and poppet valves) similar to those
installed in float equipment, but which have been modified
to maintain an open position during casing running to
allow filling and reverse circulation. The casing is
continuously filled while lowered into the well thus saving
time and reducing the pressure surges risks as common
with float equipment. The valves are generally designed
in such a way to reduce casing overflow by regulating the
fill-up rate as a function of the casing run-in speed; if the
run-in is, for instance, one joint per minute, the fluid level
inside the casing should remain one or two joints below
the annulus level. If run-in problems arise, also reverse
circulation is permitted to eliminate bridges and any other
restriction. When required the system can be converted
into a conventional float equipment (by dropping a ball)
which impedes fluid flowback; conversion is generally
performed when the casing is in place, but can be also
done while running to control overflow or limit the hook
load. Auto-fill equipment is recommended when the hook
load is not a big problem.
AUTOMATIC FILL-UP SHOES AND COLLARS

60
DIFFERENTIAL FILL-UP SHOE (LEFT)

AND COLLAR (RIGHT)
Differential fill-up shoes and collars combine the

advantages of floating and auto-fill equipment. They are
designed to automatically fill and regulate the fluid level
inside the casing string. Differential fill-up equipment is
often used when running in hole very long strings to
reduce surge pressure risks and formation damage. The
typical differential valve regulates fill-up through the action
of a floating differential piston. The piston slides upwards
to open the valve and downwards to close it and is
designed in such a way that the upper pressurized area is
approximately 10% larger than the lower. The forces
moving the piston are produced by hydrostatic pressures
acting on the upper and lower surfaces. When the
pressure above (hydrostatic pressure inside the casing)
exceeds 90% of the pressure below (hydrostatic pressure
inside the annulus), the piston will slide down closing the
valve and halting the filling; if, on the contrary, the reverse
occurs and the pressure below exceeds 90% of the
pressure above, the piston moves up opening the valve
and the filling is resumed.
DIFFERENTIAL FILL-UP SHOES AND COLLARS

61
9.9.2. MULTI-STAGE CEMENTING EQUIPMENT

Multi-stage cementing tools can be used in the following circumstances:
in wells where the hydrostatic head due to the slurry can exceed the fracture formation
pressure with high risks of fracturing the formations;
in deep, high temperature wells where the time to pump the desired quality and quantity of
cement slurry is not sufficient;
where only portions of the wellbore require to be cemented;
when different blends of cement must be safely pumped;
in horizontal wells where the curved section of the well requires proper cementing.
The two-stage cementing, which is the most practised technique, can take place according to
two methods, which require slightly different tools:
a) regular two-stage cementing;
b) continuous two-stage cementing.
Both techniques require the use of:
stage collars;
sets of appropriate plugs.

62
9.9.2. MULTI-STAGE CEMENTING EQUIPMENT

The stage collars are devices, installed in
the casing string at planned depths,
which are hydraulically opened and
closed using free-fall darts or pump-down
plugs to select and shift the appropriate
internal sleeve.
STAGE COLLARS AND PLUGS

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9.9.3. CENTRALIZERS
Centralizers are one of the simplest but yet more beneficial
devices used in primary cementing. They are attached to the
outside of a casing string and are designed to maintain it as
more centred as economically feasible in the hole, providing
the following benefits:
reducing drag and differential sticking risks while the casing
is run into the hole;
improving:
- mud removal efficiency;
- cement placement, by creating a uniform sheath of
cement around the casing joints;
- performance of the other casing attachments, such
as scratchers and cement baskets.
The most frequently used types of centralizers can be grouped
into three standard main categories, while a fourth category
includes recently developed tools, that is:
rigid centralizers;
semirigid centralizers;
spring-bow centralizers;
new devices (ceramic centralizers).
CENTRALIZERS
64
9.9.4. STOP COLLARS, SCRATCHERS

Stop collars or ring collars are simple devices having the
function to hold or limit the movement of external casing
attachments such as centralizers, scratchers, cement baskets
along the casing.
Scratchers are external devices designed to facilitate the

removal of mud cake and gelled mud from the wellbore walls
by means of pipe movement. This action provides better
bonding surfaces for the slurry and helps zonal isolation. They
also reinforce the cement column and induce localized
turbulence during slurry placement. These devices are very
effective when the casing is well centralized and moved before
and during the cementing job. To prevent build-up, scratchers
should be spaced in such a way that an area worked by a
scratcher be overlapped by adjacent scratchers.
There are two general types of scratchers:
reciprocating type;
rotating type.
STOP COLLARS, SCRATCHERS
65
9.9.5. CEMENTING PLUGS
TOP PLUG AND BOTTOM PLUG
NON-ROTATING
TOP PLUG AND BOTTOM PLUG
Cementing plugs are used with the following scopes:

to wipe out the mud film from the interior of the casing string;
to separate cement slurry from spacers and muds;
to prevent overdisplacement of the cement slurry;
to indicate when the cementing job is completed by an increase in
displacement pressure;
to allow casing to be pressure-tested immediately after cement slurry
placement and before floats are checked.
The plugs used during a cementing job are generally two: the bottom
plug and the top plug. In most operations both plugs are used, but
sometimes only the top plug can be launched into the casing string.
Bottom and top plugs are available in many configurations and their
choice depends on the particular situation that has to be faced. Top and
bottom plugs are quite similar in external appearance, but they differ in
internal design; to avoid confusion between them, they can be differently
coloured. Bottom plugs precede the slurry and consist in a hollow,
plastic or metallic (once wooden) core with a thin elastomeric membrane
around it, which can be ruptured. Top plugs are pumped immediately
after the slurry and before the displacement mud and, once in place
above the bottom plugs, indicate, through an increase in pumping
pressure, the end of the slurry placement. They have no rupture disk
and can resist very high pressures without breaking.
CEMENTING PLUGS
66
9.9.6. CEMENTING HEADS

Cementing heads, called also plug containers, are
installed on top of the casing string before starting the
cementing job to allow the drop of the plugs without,
or partially, opening the casing.
Many styles of plug containers are made available
from different manufacturers, such as:
standard and compact single and double plug
cementing heads;
subsurface release (SSR) plug containers for
operations from floating vessels;
remote control cement plug container systems.
STANDARS SINGLE-PLUG (LEFT)

AND DOUBLE-PLUG (RIGHT)
CEMENTING HEADS
CEMENTING HEADS
67
9.10. PRIMARY CEMENTING DESIGN
A Cement Programme is usually realized in two stages:

a preliminary design is shown in the Geological and Drilling
Programme;
the final design is completed at the last minute, only when the
laboratory receives the actual data of the just drilled hole section, and in
particular the data concerning temperatures, HS hole size, pressures,
deviation.

68
9.10.1. PRELIMINARY DESIGN

The design of a cementing job, even if it is only a preliminary exercise, requires all the same the
collection and interpretation of a huge amount of data, if all the various factors playing a role in
the operation are to be considered.
In particular, it is necessary to perform a thorough and comprehensive acquisition of all
pertinent data, such as:
planned depth of the well (vertical and measured) and its nominal dimensions (well profile,
planned inclination and azimuth);
expected wellbore geological and mineralogical characteristics (i.e. stratigraphy, lithology,
water- and hydrocarbon-bearing levels, salt zones, permeable formations, reactive formations,
etc.);
predicted wellbore physical characteristics (i.e. pore pressures and gradients, fracture
pressures and gradients, static temperature);
theoretical top of cement (according to the API/ISO recommendations the top of cement is to
be located at a depth where the static temperature at that particular depth is higher than the
bottom hole circulating temperature, BHCT);
planned drilling mud data (density, rheology, filtrate, composition);
planned casing string characteristics (i.e. size, thickness, mechanical properties, length,
weight, composition);
expected problems (i.e. circulation losses, hole instability, gas migration, sour fluids,
mechanical strength retrogression);
parameters, which can affect the integrity of the cement sheath and the efficiency of its
hydraulic isolation during the production life of the well and after abandonment (i.e. sour fluids,
tectonic movements, mechanical stresses).
69
9.10.2. FINAL DESIGN

The final design, which will be effectively applied in the real well, is postponed until all the
detailed information pertaining to that particular hole section is made available. Therefore, the
cementing operation is planned few days and, often, only few hours before the commencing of
the job. This implicitly underlines the criticality of this operation and the impact that even small
variations in the value assumed by the parameters involved can play on the entire operation.
The final design of any cementing job must carefully consider the following points:
verification of the data previously used in the preparation of the preliminary programme;
evaluation of the characteristics and composition of the drilling mud in hole;
calculation of the slurry volumes, based on the actual hole size measurements and casing
dimensions;
control of the pore and fracture pressures development versus depth;
verification of the static temperature profile of the well and calculation of the bottom hole
static temperature, bottom hole circulating temperature and temperature differential between
the bottom and top of the cement column;
evaluation of the consequences of the expected hole problems;
slurry design with definition of its properties and composition;
design of the required chemical washes and spacers in terms of volumes, characteristics and
composition;

70

execution of the required laboratory work to fine-tune the characteristics, composition and
performances of slurry and preflushes, with evaluation of their mutual compatibility and that
with the drilling mud;
selection of the casing centralization scheme;
design of the hydraulic programme with selection of the recommended flow rates and flow
regimes to use during slurry displacement;
selection of the most appropriate placement technique of the slurry;
selection of the surface equipment.

71

VERIFICATION OF THE DATA USED IN THE PRELIMINARY DESIGN
This group comprehends data easily verifiable, because immediately available from the analysis
of the drilling operations carried out in that specific hole section. To this group belong the data
below described.
Actual Profile of the Well: this information is very important and very easy to acquire. It shows
depth, length and nominal size of the casings run in the hole till that moment and the basic
characteristics of the open hole, in which the next casing will be lowered and cemented.
The depth and size of the last casing, open hole and next casing determine the volume of the
slurry to prepare for the cementing job and serve, with other considerations, as a guide for the
positioning of the cement top.
Lithology: from the analysis of the Master Log and the logs recorded in the open hole section,
just prior to the cementing job, eventual changes in the expected lithology can be envisaged.
Unless of large differences in the lithological sequence between what predicted and what found
(for instance the occurrence of not expected salt zones), the slurry design is not too much
affected by minor lithology variations.
Lithology can essentially influence the slurry type and its composition.

72

Drilling Mud Characteristics and Composition: this represents another important piece of
information easily available. How the mud characteristics (i.e. density, rheology, filtrate, pH, etc.)
and composition (i.e. WBM, OBM, SOBM) have varied while drilling the open hole section can
be derived from a careful analysis of the Daily Mud Reports, which also indicate the major
problems the mud posed while drilling.
The knowledge of the mud type in hole, its composition and properties is essential to plan and
realize an adequate mud removal and to prevent slurry contamination.
Chemical washes and spacers can be used for this scope and their composition strictly depends
on the type of mud in hole.
Deviation Data: the knowledge of the actual trajectory followed by the well is also critical due to
its influence on volumes, casing centralization, mud removal efficiency and well control. While
most of these data are available in the case of deviated wells, this is not always possible for the
so-called vertical wells. When planning a centralization scheme in such vertical wells, a
common recommended practice is to assume a minimum inclination of 3 o to account for
uncertainties in the well trajectory.
Of course, if during the drilling of a certain hole section the inclination and azimuth data have
been acquired because MWD or LWD tools have been used, the problem does not exist.

73

CALCULATION OF BASIC PARAMETERS
Once verified the data as above described by comparing the predicted with the actual situation
of the well, the next step consists in calculating the basic parameters necessary to plan the job
and define the slurry properties and composition. These parameters are also important for
planning the laboratory tests and are:
effective hole size;
temperature profile;
pressures regime.
HOLE SIZE EVALUATION
As well known, a well is rarely in gauge, as a consequence of the interactions between
formations, drilling fluids and drill string; these chemical and physical interactions can cause
both hole enlargement or tightening. The variations in the hole shape and size influence many
parameters of a cementing job, first of all the volumes, but also the hydraulics (velocity of the
fluids in the annulus, flow rates, mud removal efficiency, friction losses) and the centralization
schemes.
All possible efforts have to be made in order to obtain a clear picture of the hole size and shape
variations with depth; this objective can be reached or by means of comparisons with similar
wells in the same area (usually the volume of slurry required is increased of a certain percentage
depending on the lithological characteristics of the area) or, better, by recording caliper logs.
74

TEMPERATURE REGIME
The knowledge of the different temperatures at which the slurry will be exposed is another
fundamental piece of information for a correct and reliable design of a cementing job and for
realizing a successful operation.
The temperatures, which are necessary to determine with a high degree of accuracy, are:
the Bottom Hole Static Temperature, BHST;
the Bottom Hole Circulating Temperature, BHCT;
the temperature differential, T, between the bottom and the top of the cement column.
BOTTOM HOLE STATIC TEMPERATURE, BHST
The Bottom Hole Static Temperature, BHST, is the undisturbed temperature at the bottom of a
well and represents the temperature of the formations located at that depth.
The BHST can be:
calculated, once the geothermal gradient of the area and an assumed surface temperature are
known. Geothermal gradients are easily derived from previous wells drilled in the area of interest
or from other sources, while the surface temperature is assumed equal to a certain value.
API/ISO 10426-2:2003 in Appendix C suggests a value of 27oC (80oF), but other surface
temperatures can be used at the discretion of the Operator;
estimated from previous wells drilled in the area;
directly measured in the well of interest by means of temperature sensors during logging or
tripping.
75

The Bottom Hole Static Temperature affects the following properties of a slurry:
the rate at which a slurry develops its compressive strength once placed into the wellbore. One
critical point to consider, when evaluating the development rate of the compressive strength of a
certain slurry at BHST conditions, is the time required by the temperature to raise from the
BHCT, observed at the end of the cementing job, to the BHST. This is, in fact, the temperature at
which the compressive strength is measured in the laboratory. For very cold wells the time
required to pass from the BHCT to the BHST can be as long as 24 h; this time can have serious
consequences on the development of the mechanical properties of a set cement slurry;
the durability of the set cement during the lifetime of a well.
Temperature simulators can assist in predicting more realistic static and circulating temperatures
and temperature profiles inside the casing string and in the annulus, which more reliably
represent actual well conditions.

76

BOTTOM HOLE CIRCULATING TEMPERATURE, BHCT
The Bottom Hole Circulating Temperature, BHCT, is the temperature the slurry will theoretically
encounter while being placed in the hole and can be predicted once the BHST has been
determined, as previously seen.
The BHCT influences, together with the depth and the volumes to be pumped, important
characteristics of a slurry, that is:
the thickening time the slurry should possess to safely perform the operation;
the rate of compressive strength development, which depends from the time required by the
slurry to pass from the BHCT to the BHST;
and, consequently, its composition (i.e. type and concentration of accelerators, retarders,
mixing water, etc.).
The methods, normally used to predict the BHCT, are essentially:
the API/ISO methodology, as published in the Document ISO 10426-2:2003, Annex C
Additional Information Relating to Temperature Determination and Annex E Cementing
Schedules;
numerical simulators, normally developed and provided by Service Companies.

77

TEMPERATURE DIFFERENTIAL BETWEEN COLUMN TOP AND BOTTOM
The determination of the Temperature Differential between the bottom and the top of the cement
column is also critical, because it can happen that a slurry, retarded to remain fluid for a certain
period of time when exposed to the BHCT predicted for the bottom of the well, could remain
unset or develop its compressive strength very slowly when placed at shallower depths, as
occurs in correspondence of the cement top, where the temperature is surely lower.
The practice usually adopted is to fix the top of cement at a depth where the static temperature
at this depth be higher than the BHCT; if these conditions are not reachable, a solution consists
in performing a multistage cementing job or in making use of two slurries with different
composition, the lead slurry being, for instance, less retarded than the tail slurry. If this last
practice is applied, care has to be given to avoid any stops during the cementing job, otherwise
the less retarded lead slurry could be exposed to temperatures higher than what planned with
premature setting risks.

78

PRESSURE REGIME
The knowledge of the overburden, pore and fracture pressures and gradients is essential for a
correct job design, because they determine the slurry density, and up to a certain extent, its
composition, the pressures and the flow rates required to maintain the well under control during
the entire operation and if the operation can be performed in one or two stages.
If weak or naturally fractured zones are present, light-weight slurries must be formulated; on the
contrary, if abnormally pressured formations have to be cemented, high-density slurries are
required.

79
9.10.3. SLURRY SELECTION
Once all the data seen above have been collected and analyzed (in particular for
what regards pore pressure, static and circulating bottom hole temperatures), the
next step regards the selection of the slurry most appropriate for those hole
conditions.
The following main slurry characteristics have to be defined:
density;
rheological properties (consistency index, flow behaviour index, viscosity, yield
point, gel strength);
filtrate;
thickening time;
free water and settling tendencies;
compressive strength (development rate and ultimate strength);
composition with the selection of all the additives required to impart to the
slurry the desired characteristics.

80

Slurry Density: the slurry density is easily chosen once the pressure regime of the well is
known. Its function is to ensure a proper control of formation pressures through the
hydrostatic head exerted by the cement column and the fluids (mud and flushes) into the
wellbore. The slurry density should be higher than the formation pressure, but lower than the
fracture pressure, so that different formulations may be required to cement the various casing
strings in a well due to changes of pore and fracture pressures with the depth. To be sure
that the fluids in hole do not exert a pressure higher than the fracture pressure of the
formations, it is necessary to calculate the friction losses caused by the slurry and fluids
when circulated in the wellbore, determining in such a way their equivalent circulating density,
ECD. This aspect, often considered negligible in large and shallow holes, assumes, on the
contrary, a fundamental importance when cementing very long and small size strings with
reduced clearances, as in the case of very deep holes, lean profile or extreme-lean profile
wells or extended-reach wells.
In most well situations, the density of a slurry is much higher than that of the mud, but when
the two densities are very close, as in the case of abnormally pressured wells, a minimum
difference of about 0.2 kg/L is recommended, if this is possible without losing control of the
well. In fact, the experience has shown that a slurry having a density slightly higher than that
of the mud improves mud removal and the probabilities of a successful cementing job. It
has to be remembered that a simple mixture of cement and water has a density around 1.90
kg/L; therefore particular care has to be paid in the verification of the pressures acting in a
well.
81

Rheological Properties: the slurry rheological properties must be optimized for the particular
hole conditions expected. To achieve a good mud removal, normally, the slurry should exhibit a
gel strength at least 10 g/100 cm2 higher than that of the mud in hole. The rheological
parameters must be adjusted in function of the slurry density, flow regime planned and the
friction losses caused by the slurry when circulated in the annulus at a specific flow rate.
The rheological properties can be adjusted with the addition of adequate concentrations of
dispersants, selected in accordance with hole pressure and temperature conditions and
compatibility with the slurry and its other components.
Filtrate: as seen, a neat cement slurry exhibits very high filtrates, above 1000 mL/30 min.
While this is not a problem when cementing shallow strings not subject to too high pressures
and temperatures, this could negatively affect deeper casing strings, exposed to more severe
conditions; in these circumstances, filtrates below 100 mL/30 min and even below 50-30 mL/30
min may be required.
The filtrate of a slurry is controlled with the use of appropriate fluid-loss control agents, which
must be compatible with hole conditions and the other slurry components.
Thickening Time: this characteristic of the slurry is decided once the temperatures and
pressures at which the slurry will be exposed are known and in function of the time required to
complete the job plus a safety margin. The thickening time is regulated by the addition of
accelerators, if the temperature is low and the hydration reactions must be accelerated, or by
retarders, in the opposite case.
82

Free Water and Settling: the control of free water and settling tendencies of a slurry is of
particular importance especially in highly deviated and horizontal wells, where a phase
separation, differences in setting times and density gradients can cause gas migration to occur
or can negatively influence thickening times and mechanical strength development. In these
circumstances, free water should be kept as low as possible (in practice close to zero) and also
the sedimentation of the cement grains in the slurry should be minimized. For this purpose, fluidloss control additives and suspending agents can be effectively used.
Compressive Strength: the compressive strength a slurry will develop once set is a parameter,
which nowadays plays a role less important than in the past, as a consequence of a deeper
understanding of its behaviour from a mechanical point of view. New parameters are now taken
into account, such as the set cement slurry Youngs modulus, Poissons ratio and the
development rate of mechanical strengths, particularly, in cold regions, where this aspect is
much more important than the ultimate strengths the slurry will develop at the end of the setting
and hardening process. This new approach has led to the formulation of slurries, which are
characterized by better performances with respect to flexibility, elasticity, long-term durability,
shock resistance, etc.
Compressive strengths of set cement slurries are still routinely measured in the laboratory;
usually they have to satisfy some fixed values in order to start some operations, such as:
- a minimum of 35 kg/cm2 (500 psi) has to be reached before resuming drilling;
- a compressive strength of at least 140 kg/cm2 (2000 psi) must be developed if a level must be
perforated.
83
Cement Additives Selection: the choice of the additives most suited for a certain slurry
formulation is another critical point in slurry design. The additives must be selected in
accordance with the expected hole conditions, in particular for what regards: temperature,
pressure, thickening time, filtrate, rheology, flow regime, mechanical strengths and, of course,
cost.
Care must be taken in combining the various additives, because many of them present
secondary effects and can, consequently, interfere with products used to impart other properties
to the slurry.
Laboratory pilot tests are recommended when formulating complex compositions and,
especially, when new chemicals are added to the slurry for the first time.

84
9.10.4. SLURRY PLACEMENT MECHANICS

For a successful cementing job, an efficient mud removal during slurry placement is imperative
and the most important, and very often the most difficult, condition to achieve. To make this
possible, the following basic requirements must be satisfied:
correct choice of the preflushes (chemical washes, spacers) to pump ahead of the slurry;
appropriate casing centralization;
rotation and/or reciprocation of the drillstring;
optimized pumping parameters (flow rate, flow regime, contact time, etc.).
Preflushes Selection: because a high incompatibility exists between most drilling muds and
cement slurries, to prevent mixing between these two categories of fluids with adverse effects
on thickening times, rheology and mud displacement efficiency, chemical washes (water with
dispersants) or spacers (water added with polymers and weighted) or both must be pumped
ahead of the slurry to keep it separate from the drilling mud. The use of wiper plugs further
improves the action of the preflushes.
Casing Centralization: a proper casing centralization is another critical aspect to consider for
obtaining a satisfactory mud removal and a good cementing job. Theoretically, the installation
pattern to adopt should be based on the output produced by the simulation models, but often
this is quite difficult to follow literally in an actual well. Therefore, some well-known standard
schemes are adopted in centralizers placement. The most common cases are those illustrated
in the next slide.
85

For a successful cementing job, an efficient mud removal during slurry placement is imperative
and the most important, and very often the most difficult, condition to achieve. To make this
possible, the following basic requirements must be satisfied:
correct choice of the preflushes (chemical washes, spacers) to pump ahead of the slurry;
appropriate casing centralization;
rotation and/or reciprocation of the drillstring;
optimized pumping parameters (flow rate, flow regime, contact time, etc.).
Preflushes Selection: because a high incompatibility exists between most drilling muds and
cement slurries, to prevent mixing between these two categories of fluids with adverse effects
on thickening times, rheology and mud displacement efficiency, chemical washes (water with
dispersants) or spacers (water added with polymers and weighted) or both must be pumped
ahead of the slurry to keep it separate from the drilling mud. The use of wiper plugs further
improves the action of the preflushes.
Casing Centralization: a proper casing centralization is another critical aspect to consider for
obtaining a satisfactory mud removal and a good cementing job. Theoretically, the installation
pattern to adopt should be based on the output produced by the simulation models, but often
this is quite difficult to follow literally in an actual well. Therefore, some well-known standard
schemes are adopted in centralizers placement. The most common cases are those illustrated
in the next slide.
86

87

Rotation and Reciprocation of the Casing String: the positive effects of casing
movement on the mud circulation and on the efficiency of the mud removal process are
beyond any doubts. Both rotation and reciprocation of the casing string are supposed to be
of great help in better mobilizing the slowly moving and even the static mud, present in
pockets or in the narrow side of an eccentric annulus. Circulation efficiency estimates, as
obtained with numerical models, show that casing movement can also partially counteract
the detrimental effect of pipe eccentricity on mud removal.
Pumping and Flow Parameters: high flow rates effectively displace mud if turbulent flow is
achieved around the entire annulus, but are viable only if the clearance between the casing
and hole is relatively small and the casing stand-off is adequate. Lower flow rates can also
successfully remove mud when higher flow rates are not reachable, but, in these cases,
more sophisticated slurry formulations and modified fluids are often needed to achieve
efficient laminar displacements.
Displacing mud with spacers in turbulent flow is one of the most effective and widely
accepted cementing techniques. Thin, low viscosity washes, such as water with
dispersants, can be easily placed in turbulent flow also at low flow rates, but achieving
turbulence becomes harder as the hole sizes increase and stand-off decreases and is even
more difficult when weighted spacers are used. Turbulent flow criteria for annular mud
removal require:
turbulence around the entire annulus, including the narrow side;
thin preflushes in contact with formations for 10 min;
similar displacing and displaced fluid densities.
88
9.11. PRIMARY CEMENTING MISSION

The objectives of a primary cementing job are manifold; it usually serves the following
functions:
to guarantee the hydraulic seal in the annulus, preventing the movements of the formation
fluids from a level to another;
to anchor and support the various casing strings to the wellbore walls;
to allow the installation of the wellhead and the safety equipment;
to protect the tubulars from the corrosive action of sour fluids and from the erosion caused
by the solids carried up to the surface by the production fluids;
to avoid that the string is subject to non-uniform loads induced by the rock movements as in
the case of plastic, creeping formations (i.e. salt, clays); these lateral loads can cause the
ovalization, buckling and failure of the casing joints.
In general terms, the cementing techniques, which are routinely adopted in cementing the
various casing strings, do not differ too much one from the other; the main differences
fundamentally concern:
the cement slurry properties (density, rheology, filtrate, thickening time, etc.);
the flow regime to ensure during the slurry placement;
the limitations imposed by the pore formation and fracture pressures;
the mechanical strengths that should be developed in a certain time frame.

89
9.11. PRIMARY CEMENTING TECHNIQUES
As well-known, the sequence of casing strings usually run in a typical well consists of:
conductor pipe;
surface casing;
intermediate casings (one or more depending on the well depth and pressure regimes);
production casing or liner.
Though the techniques used for cementing these columns are more or less the same
some differences can be introduced into the cementing process because of the particular
requirements posed by each casing string.

90
9.11.1. CONDUCTOR PIPE CEMENTING TECHNIQUES

The CP can be:
driven by a pile driver down to a depth where the casing does not enter anymore
into the topsoil;
run in a drilled hole. In this last case, a guide shoe is usually welded on the last
joint of the CP and the cement slurry is pumped through a swage, which is screwed
to the joint closest to the surface. The cement slurry is normally pumped up to the
surface and no plugs are used during its displacement.
When working with large size casings, as in the case of the conductor pipe, it can
happen that the circulation can create so large upward forces that the buoyed weight
of the string is overcome and it is pumped out of the hole. To prevent this
occurrence, the cementing job is preferably performed through drillpipes run inside
the conductor pipe and engaged in a seat made on purpose (stab-in technique).

91
9.11.2. SURFACE CASING CEMENTING TECHNIQUES

The major problem, which is encountered while cementing this string, is to place the
top of the slurry up to the desired depth (often the surface), because very frequently
the fracture gradient characterizing these formations is well below the hydrostatic
pressure exerted by the slurries used; this is particularly true when cementing a
surface casing in deep waters. In these cases, very light-weight slurries or even
foam-cements can be prepared to overcome the problem. Wash-outs are another
recurrent problem in cementing this category of strings and this makes the estimate
of the volume of slurry required very difficult, even if caliper logs have been recorded
(the wash-out can be too large to be correctly measured by the caliper arms).
The through-drillpipe stab-in technique can represent a solution in cementing these
columns.
Frequently, the cementation of the surface casings may have to be carried out in
stages, in particular if zones with severe circulation losses or other troublesome
levels are encountered (for example, sloughing shales or shallow gas pockets).
These casing strings and also the Conductor Pipes, due to their large dimensions
and that of the holes in which they are run, are cemented with the grouting (top-up
cementing) technique or with the stab-in technique.
92

CONDUCTOR PIPE AND SURFACE CASING: GROUTING OR TOP-UP
CEMENTING TECHNIQUE
It can happen that during the cementing operation of large diameter casings
consistent circulation losses occur, impeding the slurry to arrive to the surface and
filling completely the annulus.
If this happens, the simplest thing to do, when operating onshore, is to complete the
cementing job by pumping from the top a certain volume of slurry in the annular
space between the two casings or between the open hole and the conductor pipe. A
macaroni string, formed by small size tubings (normally 1 7/8 in diameter), is run in
the annulus as deep as possible; the string is connected to the cementing unit by a
high-pressure line and mud or water is, then, circulated to be sure that no
obstructions exist in the annulus. Often two strings, placed one opposite to the other,
are run in the annulus.
If the circulation losses are particularly severe, it could be necessary to repeat the
operation several times, increasing step by step the height of the slurry in the
annulus. This is obtained by letting the first slurry to harden and bridge in the
annulus and, then, by placing above it another cement plug.
93

CONDUCTOR PIPE AND SURFACE CASING: GROUTING OR TOP-UP CEMENTING TECHNIQUE

94

CONDUCTOR PIPE AND SURFACE CASING: STAB-IN CEMENTING TECHNIQUE
This technique, which can be used only on stationary rigs, that is on land rigs, fixed platforms
and jack-ups. implies that the casing be run in hole equipped with only a stab-in float shoe,
that is a shoe having a seat where the end of the drillpipe string, called stinger, can be
introduced.
The casing is set on slips and kept off-bottom; the drillpipes or tubings are made-up and
lowered into the casing and stopped at 1 m above the float shoe. The mud inside the casing is
circulated and when its characteristics are in accordance with the programme, circulation is
stopped and the drillpipes are lowered enabling the stinger to stab or screw into the seat of
the float shoe, thus sealing any communication between the drillpipe-casing annulus.
Circulation, at this point, is established in the annulus and continued until the mud results free
of cuttings.
When this situation is observed, the cement slurry is prepared according to the Cementing
Programme and, then pumped through the drillpipes until the slurry reaches the surface; when
the slurry coming out results not to be any longer contaminated by the drilling mud, the slurry
manufacturing is stopped. At this point, the slurry completely fills the interior of the drillpipes
and the conductor pipe-surface casing annulus. The slurry can be displaced by pumping a
volume of mud equal to the volume of the drillpipes.

95

CONDUCTOR PIPE AND SURFACE CASING: STAB-IN CEMENTING TECHNIQUE
Scheme of the
stab-in technique for
cementing large
(surface) casings

96
9.11.3. INTERMEDIATE CASING CEMENTING TECHNIQUES

One or more intermediate casing strings are often required to deepen a well by
sealing off troublesome formations, such as weak zones with low fracture gradients,
overpressured intervals, salt beds, sloughing shales, reactive formations, deviated
sections, etc., to get closer to the target and to install higher performance BOP
stack. The diameter of these casings normally ranges between 13 3/8 and 7 and
the depth can reach 5000 m or more. The intermediate casing is often the longest
and the heaviest string run in the well and its role is essential to reach the target.
With the advent of high performance light-weight slurries, the intermediate casing
strings can usually be cemented in a single stage; however, a multistage
cementing job can be required:
if the column of cement slurry would exert, all the same, a hydrostatic pressure
greater than the fracture pressure of the exposed formations;
if a particular lost circulation zone must be isolated;
if a hydrocarbon-bearing level shall be absolutely sealed off.

97
9.11.3.1. SINGLE STAGE CEMENTING

Cementing performed in a single stage is the practice most common in the Industry,
particularly nowadays that very light slurries, with superior performances, can be easily
prepared at the rig site. In fact, very long cement columns can be placed in the open hole
without impairing the integrity of the formations.
The cementing job consists in the following steps:
the casing joints, centralized as planned, are run into the hole;
once the casing has reached total depth, the mud is circulated and conditioned for the time
sufficient to clean it and the wellbore walls;
usually a chemical wash and/or a spacer is pumped with the purpose to separate the slurry
from the mud in hole;
immediately after the spacer, the bottom wiper plug is released from the cementing head and
launched; its function is to avoid the slurry contamination and to clean the walls of the casing
from mud residues;
after the bottom wiper plug, the volume of cement slurry planned is pumped;
once the slurry has been completely pumped, it is followed by the second plug, which
separates the slurry from the displacing mud;
the end of the slurry displacement is indicated by an increase in pressure which occurs when
the second plug bumps onto the first located in the landing collar,
after the bump plugs, the pressure is maintained for a certain period of time; if no decrease in
pressure occurs, the casing is immediately pressure-tested, otherwise it is maintained under
pressure until the slurry gels.
98
9.11.3.1. SINGLE STAGE CEMENTING

99
9.11.3.2. MULTI-STAGE CEMENTING

Though nowadays multistage cementing is not so common as in the past, thanks to the new
light-weight and extremely light-weight cement slurries, all the same in some circumstances it
can still be required for facing problems such as:
presence of very weak formations unable to withstand the hydrostatic pressure exerted by a
long, even if light, cement column placed in the annulus in a single stage. This is normally the
most frequent cause for planning a multistage cementing, in particular, when for several
reasons, it is desired to completely cement the casing string from the bottom up to the surface;
necessity to cement with a higher density or higher compressive strength or high corrosion
resistance slurry a particular level, located in an upper position in the wellbore with respect to the
first stage;
wide distance between two zones, which is not convenient to cement in between.
Three are the typologies of multistage cementing usually performed in a well, that is:
standard two-stage or double-stage cementing, where the two stages are considered and
afforded as single distinct operations;
continuous double-stage cementing with the two stages executed in one continuous
operation;
three-stage cementing, where each stage is performed as a separate operation.

100
9.11.3.2.1. STANDARD TWO-STAGE CEMENTING

When performing a standard two-stage cementing job, the equipment used is more or less the
same as that of the single-stage cementing (that is, guide shoes and floating collar) plus an
additional collar, named stage-cementing collar or DV, placed at the planned depth from
where the second stage will begin. The stage cementing collar shall be, obviously, compatible
with the other collar run in the hole for performing the first stage.
Basically, the stage equipment consists of;
a stage cementing collar, that is a casing joint with ports, which can be opened and closed
or sealed off by the movement of a pressure-operated sleeve;
a rubber seal-off plate, installed in the upper part of the float collar, which has the function to
assure a positive shut-off;
a first-stage plug, which keeps separate the slurry from the displacement fluid and gives an
indication of the end of the displacement of the first stage;
an opening bomb, which is dropped after the end of the first stage and let landing on the
stage cementing collar; once the bomb is seated, the application of a certain amount of
pressure determines the downward movement of the collar sleeve and the opening of the ports,
through which circulation is assured;
a closing plug, which is pumped after the displacement of the slurry for the second stage has
been concluded and permits the closure of the collars ports with a further downward movement
of the collar sleeve.

101

The sequence of the operation is as follows:
the first stage is performed as in the case of a single stage operation. Two methods can be
adopted: the first bottom plug can be used (double-plug system) or not (single-plug system);
the cement slurry required for the first stage is pumped into the hole preceded by an
appropriate volume of chemical wash or spacer;
when the planned volume of slurry has been pumped, it is separated from the displacing mud
by the shut-off plug;
once the shut-off plug lands on the float collar, a pressure increase indicates the completion of
the first stage;
after a planned period of time or immediately, the opening bomb is launched into the casing for
opening the port on the stage collar;
once the bomb is in place, a pressure of 80 to 100 kg/cm2 (1200 to 1500 psi) shears the
retaining pins of the lower sleeve (this occurrence is accompanied by a decrease in the applied
pressure) and makes the sleeve slide downwards, thus uncovering the ports through which the
fluids required for completing the second stage can be circulated;
once the ports of the stage collar are open and circulation is feasible, the mud in the annulus
above the stage collar is conditioned for the time required to have it in the desired conditions and
to be sure that the slurry of the first stage be set and not covering the stage collar;

102

then, the spacer and slurry for the second stage are mixed and pumped into the casing string;
when the planned volume of slurry has been pumped, the closing plug, which separates the
slurry from the displacing mud, is brought to its seat and, once seated, a pressure increase of
at least 100 kg/cm2 (1500 psi) above the second-stage displacement pressure closes the ports
of the stage collar with a further downward movement of the closing sleeve;
the pressure is, then, released from the casing after the ports are closed.
Very often in the execution of the second stage light-weight cement slurries are used to avoid
circulation losses, because the casing is normally cemented up to the surface and long cement
column are placed in the annulus. Normal slurries are designed when overpressured zones or
aquifers must be thoroughly isolated.

103
Typical Two-Stage
Cementing Job Sequence
(Single Plug System)

104
Typical Two-Stage
Cementing Job Sequence
(Double Plug System)

105
9.11.4. LINER CEMENTING TECHNIQUES

A liner, as well known, is a casing string which does not reach the surface, but that is hung
inside a previous casing; the length of the overlap between the two casings depends on the
purpose of the liner, but normally it ranges from 15 m for drilling liners up to 150 m or more for
production liners. Very often, once the final depth has been attained or once cemented, most
liners are extended up to the surface with a tie-back casing string.
A liner is assembled as any other casing string and is normally equipped with a landing collar,
placed one joint above the float shoe; the landing collar provides a seat for the liner wiper
plug. A proper use and positioning of the centralizers is fundamental to achieve a good
cementing job, because the small clearance between the open hole and the liner makes
imperative to keep the liner detached from the wellbore walls to improve the mud removal
efficiency and avoid pipe sticking problems. At the same time, a liner properly centralized in the
hole allows an easier rotation and reciprocation of the string with evident benefits on the
operation.
At the top of the liner string, a liner hanger is installed, whose task is to support the weight of
the string suspended below it; in this way, the liner is maintained in tension by the liner hanger,
whose slips bite firmly into the previous casing. The hanger is often combined with a packer
or, sometimes, provision is made for a tie-back receptacle to allow running an isolation packer
at a later date, if required. There are usually three types of hangers, that is:
hydraulic (pressure activated);
mechanical;
expandable.
106

The liners are run in hole with drillpipes, which at
their lower end have installed a special tool, called
the setting tool, with the following functions:
to assure the hydraulic seal between the liner and
drillpipes, so that the slurry can be circulated to the
bottom of the liner, passing in the annulus through
the liner shoe;
to sustain the weight of the liner while running in
hole;
to provide an attachment for the liner wiper plug
system. The liner wiper plug is attached to the setting
tool by means of shear pins and presents a hole in
its centre, through which mud and slurry can be
pumped. Once the slurry has been pumped into the
hole and has reached the setting tool depth, the
pump-down dart, which follows the slurry, closes the
hole of the wiper plug, so that an increase in
pumping pressure causes the shear pins to break
and the wiper plug and the pump-down dart can be
pumped down the liner behind the cement slurry.
Liner Setting Tool and Hanger Assembly

107

The cementing procedure is as follows:
when the liner has reached the planned depth, but without setting the hanger, the mud in the
hole and into the liner is completely circulated and properly conditioned. In some deep liners, a
circulation valve is installed in the string, which permits circulation above the liner;
once the mud has been conditioned and no reciprocation is planned or possible, the hanger is
set and the setting tool slightly raised to be sure that is free and released from the liner. The
seal assembly, holding also the liner wiper plug, is normally 3 m to 4,5 m long; this length is
sufficient to move the setting tool without pulling it completely out from its seat and so breaking
the seal between the liner and the drillpipes. If reciprocation of the liner has been anticipated
the hanger, obviously, is set only at the end of the cementing operation;
once the surface lines are ready, a wash or a spacer is pumped ahead of the slurry (normally
a bottom wiper plug is not used, even if two-plug liner cementing systems are available). If
feasible, the preparation of the spacer and the slurry is preferably performed in a batch-mixer,
because in this way a more homogeneous product is obtained;
when the slurry has been pumped into the well by using the cementing unit (this is made
possible by the smaller volumes required to cement a liner and allows a better control of what is
pumped into the hole), it is followed by the pump-down dart, which keeps separate the slurry
from the displacing mud;
as soon as the pump-down dart reaches its seat in the liner hanger, it seals the hole of the
liner wiper plug and an increase in pumping pressure of about 80 kg/cm 2 (1200 psi) causes the
shearing of pins holding the wiper plug in place;
108

the assembly of the two plugs now travels together through the liner above the slurry;
when they arrive to their seat in the float collar or in the landing collar, another pressure
increase occurs indicating that all the slurry has been displaced in the annulus and that the
operation has been terminated;
the correct functioning of the bottom hole equipment is tested by monitoring the returns after
having bled off the pressure;
if a liner hanger equipped with a packer has been run in hole, the packer, at this very
moment, is set, the setting tool is pulled free from the liner hanger and the eventual cement
excess is reversed out;
if no packer has been used, the decision to reverse out or not the excess of cement depends
on the expected amount of slurry and if there is a real risk to have circulation losses. The
amount of excess cement slurry must be carefully calculated in order to cement the entire
length of the liner and has to be decided upon the objective of the job and well conditions;
once the reversing out circulation or the slurry placement (in case no reverse circulation was
planned) have been completed, the setting tool and the drillpipes are pulled out of the hole and
the cement is left to cure for the recommended WOC time, as indicated in the Cementing
Programme.

109

110
9.11.5. TIE-BACK CEMENTING TECHNIQUES

Quite often a liner is extended up to the surface (tie-back casing) or, less frequently, up to a
certain depth inside the hole to cover, for instance, a damaged section of the previous casing
string (tie-back stub liner).
To perform the tie-back of a liner the following additional equipment is required:
tie-back sleeve: this device, called also tie-back receptacle or polished bore receptacle or
packer-bore receptacle, can be installed above the liner hanger or it comes as an integral part
of the liner packer itself. It provides a receptacle for the sealing nipple, its internal surface is
polished and has a bevel on its top to facilitate the entry of the different tools required to
perform the subsequent operations;
tie-back sealing nipple: this tool is mounted at the bottom of the tie-back string and has
multiple packing and sealing elements, which seal against the polished surface of the tie-back
sleeve, thus assuring a hydraulic seal between the liner and the tie-back. There are different
arrangements of this tool, depending on well conditions.
Tie-back casings are cemented in the conventional manner, that is the slurry is displaced with
the tie-back sealing nipple maintained at a certain distance above the tie-back sleeve and, once
the slurry has been pumped in the annulus, the nipple is lowered into the sleeve to obtain the
desired hydraulic seal

111
9.11.5. TIE-BACK CEMENTING TECHNIQUES
Apart the equipment above described, the

cementing of a tie-back is similar to that of all the
other casing strings.
The use of washes and spacers is always

recommended to avoid the slurry contamination with
the mud in hole; this precaution is of great help in
particular when the bottom wiper plug is not used.
Furthermore, if the liner contains a brine as
completion fluid, attention has to be paid to prevent
any mixing between the two fluids, because the salts
can heavily affect the thickening times of the slurry,
accelerating or delaying the development of their
compressive strength.

112

09.politecnico Di Torino Cementing Programme 2011

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CHAPTER 9

09. CEMENTING PROGRAMME

09. CEMENTING PROGRAMME

9.2. PORTLAND CEMENTS COMPOSITION

9.2. PORTLAND CEMENTS COMPOSITION

09. CEMENTING PROGRAMME

9.2. PORTLAND CEMENTS COMPOSITION

9.3. MANUFACTURING OF PORTLAND CEMENTS

09. CEMENTING PROGRAMME

9.3. MANUFACTURING OF PORTLAND CEMENTS

9.3. MANUFACTURING OF PORTLAND CEMENTS

09. CEMENTING PROGRAMME

9.3. MANUFACTURING OF PORTLAND CEMENTS

09. CEMENTING PROGRAMME

9.4. CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF PORTLAND CEMENTS

9.4.1. HYDRATION OF THE SILICATE PHASES

2C3S + 6H C3S2H3 + 3CH

09. CEMENTING PROGRAMME

9.4.1. HYDRATION OF THE SILICATE PHASES

9.4.1. HYDRATION OF THE SILICATE PHASES

09. CEMENTING PROGRAMME

9.4.1. HYDRATION OF THE SILICATE PHASES

9.4.2. HYDRATION OF THE ALUMINATE PHASES

9.4.2. HYDRATION OF THE ALUMINATE PHASES

09. CEMENTING PROGRAMME

9.4.3. HYDRATION OF PORTLAND CEMENTS

09. CEMENTING PROGRAMME

9.5. API CLASSIFICATION OF PORTLAND CEMENTS

09. CEMENTING PROGRAMME

9.5. API CLASSIFICATION OF PORTLAND CEMENTS

09. CEMENTING PROGRAMME

9.5. API CLASSIFICATION OF PORTLAND CEMENTS

(C3A not specified)

Classes and Grades of API Well Cements

9.5. API CLASSIFICATION OF PORTLAND CEMENTS

TYPICAL COMPOSITION (%)

Typical Chemical Composition, Fineness and Water Requirements of

9.5. API CLASSIFICATION OF PORTLAND CEMENTS

09. CEMENTING PROGRAMME

9.6. MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF PORTLAND CEMENTS

9.6. MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF PORTLAND CEMENTS

09. CEMENTING PROGRAMME

9.7. CONVENTIONAL PORTLAND CEMENTS SLURRIES

09. CEMENTING PROGRAMME

9.7. CONVENTIONAL PORTLAND CEMENTS SLURRIES

9.7.1. ACCELERATED SLURRIES

9.7.1. ACCELERATED SLURRIES

09. CEMENTING PROGRAMME

9.7.1. ACCELERATED SLURRIES

THICKENING TIME (h:min)

MECHANICAL STRENGTHS (atm) vs TEMPERATURE

09. CEMENTING PROGRAMME

9.7.2. RETARDED SLURRIES

9.7.2. RETARDED SLURRIES

9.7.2. RETARDED SLURRIES

09. CEMENTING PROGRAMME

9.7.3. LIGHT WEIGHT SLURRIES

9.7.3. LIGHT WEIGHT SLURRIES

09. CEMENTING PROGRAMME

9.7.3. LIGHT WEIGHT SLURRIES

09. CEMENTING PROGRAMME

9.7.3. LIGHT WEIGHT SLURRIES

CLASS G CEMENT (44% WATER)