Chapter 9

Gas Power Systems

Learning Outcomes
Conduct air-standard analyses of internal
combustion engines based on the Otto,
Diesel, and dual cycles, including the ability
to
sketch p-v and T-s diagrams and evaluate
property data at principal states.
apply energy, entropy, and exergy balances.
determine net power output, thermal efficiency,
and mean effective pressure.

Learning Outcomes
Conduct air-standard analyses of gas turbine
power plants based on the Brayton cycle and
its modifications, including the ability to
sketch T-s diagrams and evaluate property data
at principal states.
applying mass, energy, entropy, and exergy
balances.
determine net power output, thermal efficiency,
back work ratio, and the effects of compressor
pressure ratio on performance.

Learning Outcomes
Analyze subsonic and supersonic flows
through nozzles and diffusers, including the
ability to
describe the effects of area change on flow
properties and the effects of back pressure on
mass flow rate.
explain the occurrence of choking and normal
shocks.
analyze the flow of ideal gases with constant
specific heats.

Considering Gas Turbine Power Plants

Gas turbine power plants are more quickly
constructed, less costly, and more compact than
the vapor power plants considered in Chapter 8.
Gas turbines are suited for stationary power
generation as well as for powering vehicles,
including aircraft propulsion and marine power
plants.
Gas turbines are
increasingly used for large-scale power
generation, and
for such applications fueled primarily by
natural gas, which is relatively abundant today.

Considering Gas Turbine Power Plants

Gas turbines may operate on an open or closed basis, as
shown in the figures.
The open gas turbine is more commonly used and is the
main focus of our study of gas turbines.
Study of the individual components of these configurations
requires the control volume forms of the mass, energy, and
entropy balances.
Open to the atmosphere

Closed

Considering Gas Turbine Power Plants

The open mode gas turbine is an internal combustion
power plant.
Air is continuously drawn into
the compressor where it is
compressed to a high pressure.
Air then enters the combustion
chamber (combustor) where it
mixes with fuel and combustion
occurs.
Combustion products exit
at elevated temperature and
pressure.
Part of the
turbine work
Combustion products
is used to
expand through the turbine
drive the
and then are discharged to the compressor.
surroundings.

The remainder is
available as net work
output to drive an
electric generator, to
propel a vehicle, or for
other uses.

Considering Gas Turbine Power Plants

The closed gas turbine operates as follows:
A gas circulates through four components: turbine,
compressor, and two heat exchangers at higher and lower
operating temperatures, respectively.
The turbine and compressor play the same roles as in the
open gas turbine.
As the gas passes through the
higher-temperature heat
exchanger, it receives energy by
heat transfer from an external
source.
The thermodynamic cycle is
completed by heat transfer to the
surroundings as the gas passes
through the lower-temperature
heat exchanger.

Considering Gas Turbine Power Plants

The heat transfer associated with the highertemperature heat exchanger of the closed gas
turbine originates from an external source, which
may include
External combustion of
biomass, municipal solid
waste, fossil fuels such as
natural gas, and other
combustibles.
Waste heat from industrial
processes.
Solar thermal energy.
A gas-cooled nuclear
reactor.

Air-Standard Analysis of
Open Gas Turbine Power Plants
To conduct elementary analyses of open gas turbine power
plants, simplifications are required. Although highly idealized,
an air-standard analysis can provide insights and qualitative
information about actual performance.
An air-standard analysis has the following elements:
The working fluid is air which behaves as an ideal gas.
Ideal gas relations are reviewed in Table 9.1.
The temperature rise that would be brought about by
combustion is accomplished by heat transfer from an
external source.
With an air-standard analysis, we avoid the complexities of
the combustion process and the change in composition
during combustion, which simplifies the analysis
considerably. Combustion is studied in Chapter 13.
In a cold air-standard analysis, the specific heats are
assumed constant at their ambient temperature values.

Air-Standard Brayton Cycle

The schematic of a simple open air-standard gas turbine
power plant is shown in the figure.
The energy transfers by heat and work are in the
directions of the arrows.
Air circulates through the components:
At state 1, air is drawn into the
compressor from the surroundings.
Process 1-2: the air is
compressed from state 1 to
state 2.
Process 2-3: The
temperature rise that would be
achieved in the actual power
plant with combustion is

realized here by heat transfer, Qin .

Air-Standard Brayton Cycle

Process 3-4: The high-pressure, high-temperature air
expands through the turbine. The turbine drives the
compressor and develops net power, W cycle .
Air returns to the
surroundings at state 4 with a
temperature typically much
greater than at state 1.
After interacting with the
surroundings, each unit of mass
returns to the same condition as
the air entering at state 1,
thereby completing a
thermodynamic cycle.

Air-Standard Brayton Cycle

Process 3-4: The high-pressure, high-temperature air
expands through the turbine from state 3 to state 4. The
turbine drives the compressor and develops net power, W cycle .
Air returns to the
surroundings at state 4 with a
temperature typically much
greater than at state 1.
After interacting with the
surroundings, each unit of mass
returns to the same condition as
the air entering at state 1,
thereby completing a
thermodynamic cycle.
We imagine process 4-1 being
achieved by a heat exchanger, as
shown by the dashed line in the figure.

Air-Standard Brayton Cycle

Cycle 1-2-3-4-1 is called the Brayton cycle.
The compressor pressure ratio, p2/p1, is a key
Brayton cycle operating parameter.

Air-Standard Brayton Cycle

Analyzing each component as a control
volume at steady state, assuming the
compressor and turbine operate
adiabatically, and neglecting kinetic and
potential energy effects, we get the following
expressions for the principal work and heat
transfers, which are positive in accord with
our convention for cycle analysis.
Turbine

Heat addition
(Eq. 9.15)

Compressor

(Eq. 9.17)
Heat rejection

(Eq. 9.16)

(Eq. 9.18)

Air-Standard Brayton Cycle

The thermal efficiency is
(Eq. 9.19)
The back work ratio is
(Eq. 9.20)
Note: A relatively large portion of the work developed by the
turbine is required to drive the compressor. For gas turbines,
back work ratios range from 20% to 80% compared to only 1-2%
for vapor power plants.

Since Eqs. 9.15 through 9.20 have been developed from mass
and energy balances, they apply equally when irreversibilities
are present and in the absence of irreversibilities.

Ideal Air-Standard Brayton Cycle

The ideal air-standard Brayton cycle provides an
especially simple setting for study of gas turbine power
plant performance. The ideal cycle adheres to additional
modeling assumptions:
Frictional pressure drops are absent during flows through
the heat exchangers. These processes occur at constant
pressure. These processes are isobaric.
Flows through the turbine and pump occur adiabatically
and without irreversibility. These processes are isentropic.
Accordingly, the ideal Brayton cycle consists of two
isentropic processes alternated with two isobaric processes.
In this respect, the ideal Brayton cycle is in harmony with
the ideal Rankine cycle, which also consists of two
isentropic processes alternated with two isobaric processes
(Sec. 8.2.2).

Ideal Air-Standard Brayton Cycle

The ideal air-standard Brayton cycle consists of four
internally reversible processes:
Process1-2: Isentropic compression of air flowing through the
compressor.
Process 2-3: Heat transfer to the air as it flows at constant pressure
through the higher-temperature heat exchanger.
Process 3-4: Isentropic expansion of the air through the turbine.
Process 4-1: Heat transfer from the air as it flows at constant
pressure through the lower-temperature heat exchanger.

Ideal Air-Standard Brayton Cycle

Since the ideal Brayton cycle involves internally
reversible processes, results from Sec. 6.13 apply.
On the p-v diagram, the work per unit of mass
flowing is vdp. Thus on a per unit of mass flowing
basis,
Area 1-2-a-b-1
represents the
compressor work input.
Area 3-4-b-a-3
represents the turbine
work output.
Enclosed area 1-2-3-4-1
represents the net work
developed.

Ideal Air-Standard Brayton Cycle

On the T-s diagram, the heat transfer per unit of
mass flowing is Tds. Thus, on a per unit of mass
flowing basis,
Area 2-3-a-b-2 represents
the heat added.
Area 4-1-b-a-4 represents
the heat rejected.
Enclosed area 1-2-3-4-1
represents the net heat
added or equivalently, the
net work developed.

Effects of Compressor Pressure Ratio on

Brayton Cycle Performance
That the compressor pressure ratio, p2/p1, is an
important operating parameter for gas turbines is
brought out simply by the following discussions
centering on the T-s diagram:

Effects of Compressor Pressure Ratio on

Brayton Cycle Performance
Increasing the compressor pressure ratio from p2/p1 to
p2/p1 changes the cycle from 1-2-3-4-1 to 1-2-3-4-1.
Since the average temperature of heat
addition is greater in cycle 1-2-3-4-1, and
both cycles have the same heat rejection
process, cycle 1-2-3-4-1 has the greater
thermal efficiency.

Effects of Compressor Pressure Ratio on

Brayton Cycle Performance
Increasing the compressor pressure ratio from p2/p1 to
p2/p1 changes the cycle from 1-2-3-4-1 to 1-2-3-4-1.

60
th (%)

Since the average temperature of heat

addition is greater in cycle 1-2-3-4-1, and
both cycles have the same heat rejection
process, cycle 1-2-3-4-1 has the greater
thermal efficiency.
Accordingly, the Brayton cycle thermal
efficiency increases as the compressor
pressure ratio increases.

2 4 6 8 10
Compressor
Pressure Ratio

Effects of Compressor Pressure Ratio on

Brayton Cycle Performance
Increasing the compressor pressure ratio from p2/p1 to
p2/p1 changes the cycle from 1-2-3-4-1 to 1-2-3-4-1.
Since the average temperature of heat
addition is greater in cycle 1-2-3-4-1, and
both cycles have the same heat rejection
process, cycle 1-2-3-4-1 has the greater
thermal efficiency.
Accordingly, the Brayton cycle thermal
efficiency increases as the compressor
pressure ratio increases.
The turbine inlet temperature also
increases with increasing compressor
ratio from T3 to T3.

Effects of Compressor Pressure Ratio on

Brayton Cycle Performance
However, there is a limit on the maximum
temperature at the turbine inlet imposed by
metallurgical considerations of the turbine blades.
Lets consider the effect of increasing compressor
pressure ratio on Brayton cycle performance when
the turbine inlet temperature is held constant.
This is investigated using the T-s diagram as
presented next.

Effects of Compressor Pressure Ratio on

Brayton Cycle Performance
The figure shows the T-s diagrams of two ideal
Brayton cycles having the same turbine inlet
temperature but different compressor pressure ratios.
Cycle A has the greater
compressor pressure ratio and
thus the greater thermal efficiency.
Cycle B has the larger enclosed
area and thus the greater net work
developed per unit of mass flow.
For Cycle A to develop the same
net power as Cycle B, a larger
mass flow rate would be required
and this might dictate a larger
system.

Effects of Compressor Pressure Ratio on

Brayton Cycle Performance
Accordingly, for turbine-powered vehicles, where
size and weight are constrained, it may be desirable
to operate near the compressor pressure ratio for
greater net work per unit of mass flow and not the
pressure ratio for greater thermal efficiency.

Gas Turbine Power Plant Irreversibility

The most significant irreversibility by far is the
irreversibility of combustion. This type of irreversibility is
considered in Chap. 13, where combustion fundamentals
are developed.
Irreversibilities related to flow through the turbine and
compressor also significantly impact gas turbine
performance. They act to
decrease the work developed by the turbine and
increase the work required by the compressor,
thereby decreasing the net work of the power plant.

W net W t W c

m
m
m
marked decrease in net
work of the power plant

irreversiblities increase
compressor work
irreversibilites decrease
turbine work

Gas Turbine Power Plant Irreversibility

Isentropic turbine efficiency, introduced in Sec. 6.12.1,
accounts for the effects of irreversibilities within the turbine in
terms of actual and isentropic turbine work, each per unit of
mass flowing through the turbine.
work developed in the actual
expansion from turbine inlet state
to the turbine exit pressure

(W t / m )
(h3 h4 )
t

(Wt / m ) s (h3 h4s )

work developed in an isentropic
expansion from turbine inlet
state to exit pressure

Gas Turbine Power Plant Irreversibility

Isentropic compressor efficiency, introduced in Sec.
6.12.3, accounts for the effects of irreversibilities within the
compressor in terms of actual and isentropic compressor work
input, each per unit of mass flowing through the compressor.

work input for an isentropic process from

compressor inlet state to exit pressure

(W c / m ) s (h2s h1 )
c

(h2 h1 )
(Wc / m )
work input for the actual process from compressor
inlet state to the compressor exit pressure

Gas Turbine Power Plant Loss

The exhaust gas temperature of a simple gas
turbine is typically well above the ambient
temperature. Thus, the exhaust gas has
considerable thermodynamic utility (exergy) that
would be irrevocably lost were the gas discharged
directly to the ambient.
Regenerative gas turbines (Sec. 9.7) and gas
turbine-based combined cycles (Sec. 9.9) aim to
avoid such a significant loss by using the hot
exhaust gas cost-effectively.

Regenerative Gas Turbines

The hot turbine exhaust can be utilized with a preheater
called a regenerator.
The regenerator allows air exiting the
compressor to be preheated, process 2-x,
as the turbine exhaust gas cools, process 4y.
Preheating reduces the heat added per
unit of mass flowing (and thus the amount
of fuel that must be burned):
With Regeneration Without Regeneration
Q in
(h3 hx )
m

Q in
(h3 h2 )
m

The net work per unit of mass flowing is not altered with the
inclusion of a regenerator. Accordingly, since the heat added is
reduced, thermal efficiency increases.

Regenerator Effectiveness
Since a finite temperature difference must exist
between the two streams of the regenerator for heat
transfer to take place between the streams, the coldside exiting temperature, Tx, must be less than the
hot-side entering temperature, T4.
As the stream-to-stream
temperature difference becomes
small Tx approaches T4, but
cannot exceed it. Accordingly, Tx
T 4.
As the enthalpy of the air
varies only with temperature, we
also have hx h4.

T4

Regenerator Effectiveness
The regenerator effectiveness is defined as
the ratio of the actual enthalpy increase of the air
flowing through the cold side of the regenerator,
hx h2, to the maximum theoretical enthalpy
increase, h4 h2.
(Eq. 9.27)

Regenerator Effectiveness
In practice, regenerator effectiveness values
range from 60-80%, approximately. Thus, the
temperature Tx at the combustor inlet is invariably
below the temperature T4 at the turbine exit.
Selection of a regenerator is largely an
economic decision.

With regeneration less fuel is consumed by the

combustor but another component, the
regenerator, is required.
When considering use of a regenerator, the
trade-off between fuel savings and regenerator
cost must be weighed.

Gas Turbines with Reheat and Regeneration

A modification of the Brayton cycle that increases
the net work developed is multistage expansion
with reheat.
The figure shows a cycle with two turbine stages
and a reheat combustor between the stages.

Gas Turbines with Reheat and Regeneration

The ideal Brayton cycle with reheat is 1-2-3-a-b-4-1.
The ideal Brayton cycle without reheat is 1-2-3-4-1.
The reheat cycle has a larger enclosed area than
the cycle without reheat and thus a greater net work
developed per unit of mass flowing, which is the aim.
Cycle without reheat

Cycle with reheat

Gas Turbines with Reheat and Regeneration

The figure also shows that the temperature at the exit
of the second-stage turbine, state 4, is greater than at
the exit of the single turbine of the cycle without reheat,
state 4. Accordingly, with reheat the potential for
regeneration is also enhanced.
When reheat and regeneration are used together, the
thermal efficiency can increase significantly over that for
the cycle without reheat.

T4
T4

Gas Turbines with

Intercooling and Regeneration
Another modification of the Brayton cycle that
increases the net work developed is compression
with intercooling.
The figure shows two compressor stages and an
intercooler between the stages.

Gas Turbines with

Intercooling and Regeneration
The accompanying p-v diagram
shows the processes for internally
reversible operation:
Process 1-c. Isentropic
compression from state 1, where
pressure is p1, to state c, where
pressure is pi.
Process c-d. Constant-pressure
cooling from temperature Tc to
temperature Td.
Process d-2. Isentropic
compression to state 2, where
pressure is p2.

Isentropic compression without intercooling is

represented by process 1-c-2.

Gas Turbines with

Intercooling and Regeneration
Recalling that for such internally reversible processes the
work input per unit of mass flowing is given by vdp, the
following area interpretations apply, each per unit of mass
flowing:
With intercooling, area 1-c-d-2-a-b-1
represents the work input.
Without intercooling, area 1-2-a-b-1
represents the work input.
The cross-hatched area c-d-2-2-c
represents the reduction in work
achieved with intercooling.

If the total turbine work remains the same, a reduction in

compressor work results in an increase in the net work
developed, which is the aim.

Gas Turbines with

Intercooling and Regeneration
While compression with and without intercooling each
bring the air to the same final pressure, p2, the final
temperature with intercooling, T2, is lower than the final
temperature without intercooling, T2.
Comparing states 2 and 2 on the T-s diagram, T2 < T2.
The lower temperature at the compressor exit with
intercooling enhances the potential for regeneration.

T2
T2

Gas Turbines with

Intercooling and Regeneration
When compression with intercooling is used together with
regeneration, the thermal efficiency can increase significantly
over that for the cycle without intercooling.
The T-s diagram also shows that for cooling to the
surroundings the temperature Td at the intercooler exit
cannot be less than T1, the temperature of the air entering
the compressor from the surroundings: Td T1.

Td
T1

Regenerative Gas Turbine

with Reheat and Intercooling
Shown here is a regenerative gas turbine that
incorporates reheat and intercooling.
With these modifications to the basic Brayton cycle:
The net work
output is
increased.
The thermal
efficiency is
increased.

Regenerative Gas Turbine

with Reheat and Intercooling
Applying mass and energy rate
balances at steady state, we
obtain the following expressions,
each per unit of mass flowing:
Total turbine work:
W t
= (h6 h7) + (h8 h9) = t1(h6 h7s) + t2(h8 h9s)

m
where t1 and t2 denote the isentropic efficiencies of turbines 1 and 2,
respectively.

Total compressor work:

W c
= (h2 h1) + (h4 h3) = (h2s h1)/c1 + (h4s h3)/c2
m
where c1 and c2 denote the isentropic efficiencies of compressors 1
and 2, respectively.

Regenerative Gas Turbine

with Reheat and Intercooling
Applying mass and energy rate
balances at steady state, we
obtain the following expressions,
each per unit of mass flowing:
Total heat added:
Q in
= (h6 h5) + (h8 h7)

m
In this application, the regenerator effectiveness is:

reg = (h5 h4)/(h9 h4)

For cooling to the surroundings, the temperature at the
exit of the intercooler, T3, cannot be less than the
temperature of the air entering the compressor from the
surroundings: T3 T1.

Gas Turbine-Based Combined Cycle

The exhaust temperature of the simple gas turbine
is typically well above the ambient temperature, and
thus the hot gas exiting the turbine has significant
thermodynamic utility (exergy) that can be used costeffectively.
Ways to utilize this potential include:
The regenerative cycle previously considered.
A combined cycle namely, a cycle that
couples two power cycles such that the energy
discharged by heat transfer from the highertemperature cycle is used as a heat input for the
lower-temperature cycle.

Combined Gas Turbine-Vapor Power Cycle

Illustrated here is a combined cycle
involving gas and vapor power cycles:
The cycles are combined using an
interconnecting heat-recovery steam
generator that serves as the boiler
for the vapor power cycle.
The combined cycle has the gas
turbines high average temperature of
heat addition and the vapor power
cycles low average temperature of
heat rejection.
Thermal efficiency is greater than
either cycle would have individually.
Increasingly, combined gas turbine-vapor power plants are
being used world-wide for electric power generation.

Combined Gas Turbine-Vapor Power Cycle

The net power developed by the
combined cycle is the sum of the net
power developed by each cycle.
The thermal efficiency of the
combined cycle is the net power
output divided by the rate of heat
addition.
(Eq. 9.28)
For an adiabatic heat recovery steam
generator, mass and energy rate
balances reduce to give the following relationship involving the
mass flow rates of the two cycles:
(Eq. 9.29)

Combined-cycle District Heating

Shown here is a combined gas turbine-vapor power cycle
applied for district heating. District heating plants are
located within communities to deliver steam or hot water
together with electricity for domestic,
commercial, and industrial use.
Alternatively, steam exiting
the turbine may be sent
directly to the community
while its condensate returns
to the pump, thereby
eliminating the condenser.

Gas Turbines for Aircraft Propulsion

Because of their favorable power-to-weight ratio, gas
turbines are well suited for aircraft propulsion. The
turbojet engine is commonly used for this purpose.
The figure provides the schematic of a turbojet engine.

Va

V5

Gas Turbines for Aircraft Propulsion

The increase in velocity from diffuser inlet, Va, to nozzle
exit, V5, gives rise to the thrust developed by the engine
in accord with Newtons second law of motion (Eq. 9.31).
In harmony with air-standard analysis, we assume air
modeled as an ideal gas flows through the engine shown
in the schematic and the temperature rise that would be
obtained with combustion is achieved by heat transfer
from an external source.
Va

V5

Gas Turbines for Aircraft Propulsion

If the air flows through the components of the turbojet engine
without irreversibilities and stray heat transfer, air undergoes
the five processes shown on the T-s diagram:
Process a-1: Air at velocity Va enters the diffuser and
decelerates isentropically, while experiencing an increase in
pressure.
Process 1-2: The air experiences a further increase in
pressure isentropically, owing to work done by the compressor.

Va

V5

Gas Turbines for Aircraft Propulsion

If the air flows through the components of the turbojet engine
without irreversibilities and stray heat transfer, air undergoes
the five processes shown on the T-s diagram:
Process 2-3: The temperature of the air increases at constant
pressure as it receives a heat transfer from an external source.
Process 3-4: The high-pressure, high-temperature air
expands isentropically through the turbine, driving the
compressor.

Va

V5

Gas Turbines for Aircraft Propulsion

If the air flows through the components of the turbojet engine
without irreversibilities and stray heat transfer, air undergoes
the five processes shown on the T-s diagram:
Process 4-5: The air continues to expand isentropically
through the nozzle, achieving a velocity, V5, at the engine exit
much greater than the velocity, Va, at the engine inlet, and
thereby developing thrust.

Va

V5

Review: Nozzle and Diffuser Modeling

The one-inlet, one-exit energy rate balance at
steady state reads:

2
2

(V

V
)
i
e
0 Q cv W cv m (hi he )
g ( zi z e )
2

For a control volume enclosing a nozzle or diffuser,

W cv 0.
If the change in potential energy from inlet to exit is
negligible, g(zi ze) drops out.
If the heat transfer with surroundings is negligible,
Q cv drops out.
Vi2 Ve2
0 (hi he )

Gas Turbines for Aircraft Propulsion

The energy rate balance applicable to the diffuser
takes the form
V2 V2
0 (hi he )

For the diffuser, i = a and e = 1. Then,

ha
Va

h1
V1 0

Va2 V12
0 (ha h1 )

Since exit velocity is negligible, the energy rate

balance reduces to
Va2
h1 ha
2

Gas Turbines for Aircraft Propulsion

The energy rate balance applicable to the nozzle
takes the form
V2 V2
0 (hi he )

For the nozzle, i = 4 and e = 5. Then,

h5
V5

h4
V4 0

V42 V52

0 (h4 h5 )

5
4

Since inlet velocity is negligible, the energy rate

balance reduces to
2

V5
h4 h5
V5 2(h4 h5 )
2

Gas Turbines for Aircraft Propulsion

Since the final expressions obtained for the
diffuser and nozzle are deduced from mass and
energy rate balances, they apply equally when
irreversibilities are present and in the absence of
irreversibilities.