CHAPTER-12

KINEMATICS OF A PARTICLE

INTRODUCTION
MECHANICS
(concerned with the state of rest or
motion of bodies subjected to the
action of forces )

STATICS
(concerned with equilibrium of
a body that is either at rest or
moves with constant velocity)

DYNAMICS
(Deals with the accelerated
motion of a body)

KINEMATICS
(deals only with the geometric aspects of
motion without regard to the forces which
produce that motion)

KINETICS
(analysis of forces causing the
motion)

In this chapter we will study the geometric aspects of the motion of a

particle

RECTILINEAR KINEMATICS: CONTINUOUS MOTION

A particle has a mass but negligible size and shape

Thus our applications will be limited to those objects that have
dimensions that are of no consequence in the analysis of motion
In most problems, one is interested in bodies of finite size, such as
rockets, projectiles or vehicles.
Such objects may be considered as particles provided motion of the
body is characterized by motion of its mass center and any rotation of
the body is neglected.
A particle can move along either a straight or a curved path.
Rectilinear motion is the motion of a body along a straight line
The kinematics of this motion is characterized by specifying, at any
given instant, the particles position, velocity and acceleration.

RECTILINEAR KINEMATICS: CONTINUOUS MOTION

POSITION:

The straight line path of particle will be defined using a single coordinate
axis, s
Origin O on the path is a fixed point, and from this fixed point the
position vector r is used to specify the location of the particle P at any
given instant.
Since r is always along the s-axis and so its direction never changes, only
its magnitude changes, so for analytical work it is often convenient to
represent r by an algebraic scalar s, representing the position coordinate
of the particle
The magnitude of s (and r) is the distance from O to P, and the sense (or
arrowhead direction of r) is defined by the algebraic sign of s.

RECTILINEAR KINEMATICS: CONTINUOUS MOTION

DISPLACEMENT:

The displacement of the particle is defined as the change in its position.

e.g. if the particle moves from P to P the displacement is r = r r.
Using algebraic scalars to represent r, we have : s = s s
Here s is positive since the particles final position is to the right of its
initial position i.e. s>s, likewise, if the final position is to the left of its
initial position, s is negative
Displacement of a particle must be distinguished from the distance
traveled by the particle, which is always a positive scalar quantity that
represents the total length of path over which a particle travels.

RECTILINEAR KINEMATICS: CONTINUOUS MOTION

VELOCITY:

If the particle moves through a displacement r from P to P during time interval t, the average velocity of the particle is:
vavg = r/t

If we take smaller and smaller values of t, the magnitude of r becomes smaller and smaller. Consequently the instantaneous
velocity is defined by :
v = limt-0 (r/t) or v = dr/dt

Representing v as an algebraic scalar, we can also write:

v = ds/dt ------------------------------(1)
Since t or dt is always positive, the sign used to define the sense of velocity is the same as that of s or ds. For example, if the
particle is moving to the right, the velocity is positive, whereas if it is moving to the left, the velocity is negative.

RECTILINEAR KINEMATICS: CONTINUOUS MOTION

s
O

sT

Difference in Average Speed & Average Velocity:

The magnitude of velocity is known as speed.

The Average Speed is always a positive scalar and is defined as the total
distance traveled by a particle, sT, divided by the elapsed time t, i.e.
(vsp)avg = sT / t
Whereas the average velocity for the above mentioned particle as it has
traveled from P to P will be:
vavg = - s / t

RECTILINEAR KINEMATICS: CONTINUOUS MOTION

ACCELERATION:

The average acceleration of a particle during the time interval t is defined by:
aavg = v/t

Here v represents the difference in the velocity during the time interval t i.e.
v = v v

If we take smaller and smaller values of t, the magnitude of v becomes smaller

and smaller. Consequently the instantaneous acceleration is defined by :
a = limt-0 (v/t) or a = dv/dt or a = d2s / dt2 ------------------(2)

Both the average and instantaneous acceleration can be either positive or negative.

RECTILINEAR KINEMATICS: CONTINUOUS MOTION

VELOCITY:
ACCELERATION:

v = ds/dt ------------------------------(1)
a = dv/dt ------------------------------(2)

A differential relation involving the displacement, velocity and acceleration

along the path may be obtained by eliminating the time differential dt
between equation (1) and (2).
a ds = v dv ------------------------------(3)

RECTILINEAR KINEMATICS: CONTINUOUS MOTION

CONSTANT ACCELERATION:
When the acceleration is constant, each of the three kinematic equations
v = ds/dt, a = dv/dt, a ds = v dv, may be integrated to obtain formulas that
relate ac, v, s and t.
Velocity as a function of Time:
v = v o + act

--------------------------------(4)

Position as a function of Time:

s = so + vot + (1/2)act2 ---------------------(5)
Velocity as a function of Position:
v2 = vo2 + 2ac(s so) -----------------------(6)

It is important to remember that equations (4), (5) and (6) are useful only
when the acceleration is constant and when t=0, s=s o, v = vo

RECTILINEAR KINEMATICS: CONTINUOUS MOTION

Examples:
12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4 and 12.5
Fundamental Problems:
F12-1, F12-6
Practice Problems:
12.7, 12.17, 12.21, 12.29, 12.31

EXAMPLE 12-1
During a test, the car shown below moves in a straight line
such that for a short time its velocity is defined by :
v = (3t2+2t) ft/s, where t is in seconds. Determine its
position and acceleration when t = 3s. When t=0, s=0.

EXAMPLE 12-3
During a test, a rocket is
traveling upward at 75m/s, and
when it is 40m from the ground
its engine fails. Determine the
maximum height sB reached by
the rocket and its speed just
before it hits the ground. While
in motion the rocket is subjected
to a constant downward
acceleration of 9.81m/s2 due to
gravity. Neglect the effect of air
resistance.

FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEM F12-6

PROBLEM 12-7

PROBLEM 12-29

RECTILINEAR KINEMATICS: ERRATIC MOTION

When a particles motion during a time period is erratic (inconsistent,

irregular) it may be difficult to obtain a continuous mathematical
function to describe its position, velocity or acceleration.
Instead, the motion may best be described graphically using a series of
curves that can be generated experimentally from computer output.
If the resulting graph describes the relationship between any two of the
variables, a, v, s, t, a graph describing the relationship between the other
variables can be established by using the kinematic equations 1, 2 and 3.
The concept is explained with the help of the following examples:

EXAMPLE 12-6
(Given the s-t graph, construct the v-t and a-t graphs)

A bicycle moves along a

straight road such that
its position is described
by the graph shown in
figure. Construct the v-t
and a-t graphs for
0 t 30 s

EXAMPLE 12-6

contd.

(Given the s-t graph, construct the v-t and a-t graphs)

EXAMPLE 12-7
(Given the a-t graph, construct the v-t and s-t graphs)

The rocket sled shown in

figure starts from rest and
travels along a straight line
such that it accelerates at a
constant rate for 10s and
then decelerates at a
constant rate. Draw the v-t
and s-t graphs and
determine the time t needed
to stop the sled. How far has
the sled traveled?

EXAMPLE 12-7 contd.

(Given the a-t graph, construct the v-t and s-t graphs)

EXAMPLE 12-8
(Given the a-s graph, construct the v-s graph)
or (Given the v-s graph, construct the a-s graph)

The v-s graph describing

the motion of a
motorcycle is shown.
Construct the a-s graph
of the motion and
determine the time
needed for the
motorcycle to reach the
position s = 400 ft.

EXAMPLE 12-8 contd.

(Given the a-s graph, construct the v-s graph)
or (Given the v-s graph, construct the a-s graph)

RECTILINEAR KINEMATICS: ERRATIC MOTION

Examples:
12.6, 12.7, 12.8
Fundamental Problems:
F12-9, F12-14
Practice Problems:
12.47, 12.53, 12.57, 12.65,
12.67

PROBLEM 12-57

GENERAL CURVILINEAR MOTION

Curvilinear motion occurs when the particle moves along a curved path
Since this path is often described in three dimensions vector analysis
will be used to formulate the particles position, velocity and
acceleration

POSITION:

Consider a particle located at point P on a

space curve defined by the path function s

The position of the particle, measured

form a fixed point O, will be designated
by the position vector r = r(t)

This vector is a function of time since, in

general, both its magnitude and direction
changes as the particle moves along the
curve.

GENERAL CURVILINEAR MOTION

DISPLACEMENT:

Suppose during a small time interval t the particle moves a distance s

along the curve to a new position P, defined by r = r + r

The displacement r represents the change in the particles position and is

determined by vector subtraction:
r = r r

GENERAL CURVILINEAR MOTION

VELOCITY:

During the time interval t, the average velocity of the particle is defined
by:
vavg = r / t

The instantaneous velocity is determined from this equation by letting t

0, and consequently the direction of r approaches the tangent to the
curve at point P. Hence,
v = limt-0 (r/t) or v = dr/dt

Since dr will be tangent to the curve at P, the direction of v is also tangent

to the curve

GENERAL CURVILINEAR MOTION

ACCELERATION:

If the particle has a velocity v at time t and a velocity v = v + v at t + t, then

the average acceleration of the particle during the time interval t is
aavg = v / t
where v = v - v

The two velocity vectors v and v are plotted in figure such that their tails are
located at the fixed point O and their arrowheads touch points on the curve. This
curve is called a Hodograph, and when constructed, it describes the locus of
points for the arrowhead of the velocity vector in the same manner as the path s
describes the locus of points for the arrowhead of the position vector.
To obtain the instantaneous acceleration, let t 0, so
a = limt-0 (v/t) or a = dv/dt or a = d2r / dt2
By definition of the derivative, a acts tangent to the hodograph, and therefore, in
general, a is not tangent to the path of motion.

CURVILINEAR MOTION: RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS

POSITION:

If at a given instant, the particle P is at a point (x,y,z) on the curved path s,

its location is then defined by the position vector
r = xi +yj + zk

The magnitude of r is always positive and is defined as:

r x2 y2 z 2

The direction of r is specified by the components of the unit vector, ur =

r/r

CURVILINEAR MOTION: RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS

VELOCITY:

The first time derivative of r yields the velocity v of the particle,

Hence dr d
d
d
v

dt

dt

( xi )

dt

( yj )

dt

( zk )
0

dr
vx i v y j vz k
dt

v x x, v y y , v z z

The velocity has a magnitude defined as the positive value of:

v = (vx2+vy2+vz2)

The direction of v is specified by the components of the unit vector,

uv = v/v

This direction is always tangent to the path.

CURVILINEAR MOTION: RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS

ACCELERATION:

The first time derivative of v yields the acceleration a of the particle,

Hence
dv
a
0

dt
00

a xi a y j az k
0

00

00

ax vx x , a y v y y, az vz z

The acceleration has a magnitude defined as the positive value of:

a = (ax2+ay2+az2)

The direction of a is specified by the components of the unit vector,

ua = a/a

EXAMPLE 12-9
At any instant the horizontal position of the weather balloon is
defined by x=(8t) ft where t is given in seconds. If the equation of the
path is y=x2/10, determine:
(a) the distance of the balloon from the station at A when t=2s,
(b) the magnitude and direction of the velocity when t=2s,
(c) the magnitude and direction of the acceleration when t=2s

MOTION OF A PROJECTILE

The free flight motion of a projectile is often studied in terms of its rectangular
components, since projectiles acceleration always acts in the vertical direction
Consider a projectile launched at point (x0,y0)

The path is defined in the x-y plane such that the initial velocity is v0, having
components (vx)0 and (vy)0

When air resistance is neglected, the only force acting on the projectile is its
weight, which causes the projectile to have a constant downward acceleration of
9.8m/s2 (32.3ft/s2)

MOTION OF A PROJECTILE

Horizontal Motion:
Since ax=0, application of the constant acceleration equation yields:
v = v + a t;
vx = (vx)0
0
c
x = x + v t +(1/2)a t2;
x = x0 + (vx)0 t
0
0
c

v2 = v02 + 2ac(s-s0);
vx = (vx)0

Vertical Motion:
Since positive y-axis is directed upward, then a x= -g, application of the constant
acceleration equation yields:
v = v0 + act;
vy = (vy)0 - gt
y = y0 + v0t +(1/2)act2;
y = y0 + (vy)0 t (1/2)gt2
v2 = v02 + 2ac(y-y0);
vy2 = (vy)02 2g(y-y0)

MOTION OF A PROJECTILE
Examples:
12.9, 12.10, 12.11, 12.12, 12.13
Fundamental Problems:
F12-17, F12-22
Practice Problems:
12.97, 12.98, 12.105, 12.107,
12.109

EXAMPLE 12-11
A sack slides off the ramp, as shown in figure, with a horizontal
velocity of 12m/s. If the height of the ramp is 6m from the floor,
determine the time needed for the sack to strike the floor and the
range R where sacks begin to pile up.

EXAMPLE 12-13
The track for the racing event is designed so that the rider jumps off
the slope at 30, from a height of 1m. During a race it was observed
that the rider remained in mid air for 1.5 s. Determine the speed at
which he was traveling off the slope, the horizontal distance he
travels before striking the ground, and the maximum height he
attains. Neglect the size of the bike and the rider.

PROBLEM 12-105
The boy at A attempts to throw a ball over the roof of a barn with an
initial speed of vA = 15 m/s. Determine the angle A at which the ball
must be thrown so that it reaches its maximum height at C. Also,
find the distance d where he should stand to make the throw.

PROBLEM 12-109
Determine the horizontal velocity vA of a tennis ball at A so that it
just clears the net at B. Also, find the distance s where the ball strikes
the ground.

CURVILINEAR MOTION: Normal & Tangential Coordinates

When the path along which a particle is moving is known, it is often convenient to
describe the motion using n and t coordinates which act normal and tangent to the path.

Planar Motion:

Consider the particle P shown, which is moving in a plane along a fixed curve,
such that at a given instant it is at the position s, measured from point O.

The t axis is tangent to the curve at P and is positive in the direction of

increasing s. This positive direction is designated by the unit vector ut.

The normal axis n is perpendicular to the t-axis and is directed from P towards
the center of curvature O. The positive direction, which is always on the
concave side of the curve, will be designated by the unit vector un.

The plane which contains the n and t axis is referred to a s the osculating plane.

CURVILINEAR MOTION: Normal & Tangential Coordinates

Velocity:

Since the particle is moving, s is a function of time.

The particles velocity v has a direction that is always tangent to the path, and a
magnitude that is determined by taking the time derivative of the path function
s = s(t), i.e. v = ds/dt. Hence:
0

v = v ut

where v = s

CURVILINEAR MOTION: Normal & Tangential Coordinates

Acceleration:

The acceleration of the particle is the time rate of change of velocity. Thus
------------------(1)

In order to determine the time derivative of unit vector ut note that as the particle
moves along the arc ds in time dt, ut preserves its magnitude of unity, however,
its direction changes and becomes ut

CURVILINEAR MOTION: Normal & Tangential Coordinates

As shown in the figure, ut = ut + dut

dut has a magnitude of dut = (1) d, and its direction is defined by un

So dut = d un

Therefore the time derivative becomes

CURVILINEAR MOTION: Normal & Tangential Coordinates

SPECIAL CASES:

If the particle moves along a straight line, then = , thus

an = 0. Thus a = at, and we can conclude that the tangential
component of acceleration represents the time rate of change
in the magnitude of the velocity
If the particle moves along the curve with a constant speed,
then at= 0 and a = an = v2/. Therefore, the normal component
of acceleration represents the time rate of change in the
direction of the velocity. Since an always acts towards the
center of the curvature, this component is sometimes referred
to as the centripetal acceleration.

CURVILINEAR MOTION: Normal & Tangential Coordinates

Three Dimensional Motion

If the path is expressed as y=f(x), the radius of curvature at any point on the
path is determined from the equation:

[1 (dy / dx) 2 ]3 / 2

d 2 y / dx 2

CURVILINEAR MOTION: Normal & Tangential Coordinates

Examples:
12.14, 12.15, 12.16
Fundamental Problems:
F12-28, F12-31
Practice Problems:
12.116, 12.118, 12.138,
12.140, 12.141

EXAMPLE 12-15
A race car C travels around the horizontal circular track that has a
radius of 300ft. If the car increases its speed at a constant rate of
7ft/s, starting from rest, determine the time needed for it to reach an
acceleration of 8 ft/s2. What is its speed at this instant?

EXAMPLE 12-16
The box travels along the industrial conveyor as shown. If it starts from
rest at A and increases its speed such that at = (0.2t) m/s2, where t is in
seconds, determine the magnitude of its acceleration when it arrives at
point B.

Problem 12-138

Problem 12-141
The truck travels along a circular road that has a radius of 50m at a speed
of 4m/s. For a short distance when t=0, its speed is then increased by
v0=(0.4t) m/s2, where t is in seconds. Determine the speed and the
magnitude of the trucks acceleration when t=4s.

CURVILINEAR MOTION: Cylindrical Components

Path of motion of a particle can sometimes be expressed in terms of cylindrical
components (r, , z). If the motion is restricted to the plane, the polar coordinates r and
are used.

Polar Coordinates:

The location of the particle P can be specified by using both the radial
coordinate r, which extends outward from the fixed origin O to the particle, and
a transverse coordinate , which is the counterclockwise angle between a fixed
reference line and the r axis.

The angle is generally measured in degrees or radians

The positive directions of r and coordinates are defined by the unit vectors ur

and u respectively.

CURVILINEAR MOTION: Cylindrical Components

Position:

At any instant the position of the particle is defined by the position vector,
r = r ur
Velocity:

The instantaneous velocity v is obtained by taking the time derivative of

position vector r. Thus we have

CURVILINEAR MOTION: Cylindrical Components

To evaluate the time derivative of ur, it must be noticed that ur changes only its
direction with respect to time, since by definition the magnitude of this vector is
always one unit.
During the time t, a change will cause ur to become ur where
ur = ur + ur
The time change in ur is then ur
For small angles this vector has a magnitude ur 1() and acts in the u
direction.
Hence ur = u
Thus,

CURVILINEAR MOTION: Cylindrical Components

Therefore the velocity vector v can be written as:

where:

These components are shown graphically in the above figure

Since vr and v are mutually perpendicular, the magnitude of velocity is defined
by:

And the direction of v is tangent to the path at P.

CURVILINEAR MOTION: Cylindrical Components

Acceleration:

Taking the time derivative of velocity vector, the particles instantaneous

acceleration is obtained, which is:

To evaluate the time derivative of u, it must be noticed that u changes only its
direction with respect to time, since by definition the magnitude of this vector is
always one unit.
During the time t, a change will cause u to become u where
u = u + u. The time change in u is then u
For small angles this vector has a magnitude u 1() and acts in the -ur
direction. Hence u = - ur
Thus,

CURVILINEAR MOTION: Cylindrical Components

Therefore the acceleration vector a can be written as:

where:

These components are shown graphically in the above figure

Since ar and a are mutually perpendicular, the magnitude of acceleration is
defined by:

CURVILINEAR MOTION: Cylindrical Components

Cylindrical Coordinates:

If the particle P moves along a space curve as shown, then its location may be
specified by the three cylindrical coordinates, r, and z.

The z coordinate is identical to that used for rectangular coordinates.

CURVILINEAR MOTION: Cylindrical Components

Examples:
12.17, 12.18, 12.19, 12.20
Fundamental Problems:
F12-34, F12-36
Practice Problems:
12.165, 12.167, 12.169, 12-186
12.187

Example 12-18
The rod OA is rotating in the horizontal plane such that =(t3) rad. At the
same time, the collar B is sliding outward along OA so that r=(100t 2) mm.
If in both cases t is in seconds, determine the velocity and acceleration of
the collar when t=1s.

Example 12-18 contd

Example 12-20
Due to the rotation of the forked rod, the cylindrical peg A travels
around the slotted path, a portion of which is in the shape of a
cardioid, r=0.5(1-Cos) ft, where is in radians. If the pegs velocity is
v=4 ft/s and its acceleration is a=30 ft/s 2 at the instant =180,
determine the angular velocity and angular acceleration of the fork.

Problem 12-169

Problem 12-187

Absolute Dependent Motion Analysis of Two Particles

In some types of problems the motion of one particle will depend on the
corresponding motion of another particle.
This dependency commonly occurs if the particles are interconnected by
inextensible cords which are wrapped around pulleys.
For example, the movement of block A downward along the inclined plane
will cause a corresponding movement of block B up the other incline.
We can show this mathematically by first specifying the location of the blocks
using position coordinates sA and sB
Each of the coordinate axes is:
i) referenced from a fixed point (O) or fixed datum line
ii) measured along each incline plane in the direction of motion of block A
and block B
iii) has a positive sense from C to A and D to B.

Absolute Dependent Motion Analysis of Two Particles

or

If the total cord length is lT, the position coordinates are related by the
equation:
sA + lCD + sB = lT
Taking the time derivative of this expression and noting that l CD and lT reamin
constant, we have:
(d sA/dt) + (d sB/dt) = 0
vB = -vA
The negative sign indicates that when block A has a velocity downward, i.e. in
the direction of positive sA, it causes a corresponding upward velocity of block
B; i.e. B moves in negative sB direction.
Similarly, time differentiation of the velocities yields the relation between the
accelerations, i.e.
aB = -aA

Absolute Dependent Motion Analysis of Two Particles

Consider a more complicated example

involving dependent motion of two
blocks.
In this case the position of A is
specified by sA, and the position of the
end of the cord from which block B is
suspended is defined by sB
Coordinate axes are chosen such that
they are:
i) referenced from fixed points or
datums
ii) measured in the direction of motion
of each block, and
iii) positive to the right (sA) and
positive downward (sB)
If l represents the total length of the
cord, then:
2sB+h+sA = l
2vB = -vA
2aB = -aA

Absolute Dependent Motion Analysis of Two Particles

Same example can also be worked out

by defining the position of block B
from the center of the bottom pulley.

In this case:
2(h-sB) + h + sA = l
2vB = vA
2aB = aA

Example 12.21
Determine the speed of block
A, if block B has an upward
speed of 6ft/s.

Example 12.23
Determine the speed with
which block B rises if the end
of the cord at A is pulled down
with a speed of 2 m/s.

Relative Motion Analysis of Two Particles Using

Translating Axes

Uptil now, absolute motion of a particle has been determined using a

single fixed reference frame for measurement

However, when the path of motion for a particle is complicated,

sometimes it is feasible to analyze the motion in parts by using two or
more frames of reference.

At this instant, only translating frames of reference will be considered for

analysis.

Relative Motion Analysis of Two Particles Using

Translating Axes

Position:

Consider particles A and B which move along the

arbitrary paths aa and bb respectively.
The absolute position of each particle rA and rB is

measured from the common origin O of the fixed x,

y, z reference frame.

The origin of a second frame of reference x, y, zis

attached to and moves with particle A.

The relative position of B with respect to A is

designated by a relative position vector rB/A, such
that:
rB = rA + rB/A
Velocity:

An equation that relates the velocities of the

particles can be determined by taking the time
derivative of above equation:
vB = vA + vB/A
Acceleration:

The time derivative of velocity equation yields a

similar vector relationship between the absolute and
relative accelerations of particles.
aB = aA + aB/A

Relative Motion Analysis of Two Particles Using

Translating Axes
Examples:
12.21, 12.22, 12.23, 12.24,
12.25, 12.26, 12.27
Fundamental Problems:
F12-39, F12-42
Practice Problems:
12.202, 12.207, 12.217,
12.223, 12.225

Example 12-25
A train traveling at a constant speed of 60 mi/h, crosses over a road as
shown. If the automobile A is traveling at 45 mi/h along the road,
determine the magnitude and direction of the relative velocity of the train
with respect to the automobile.

Example 12-26
Plane A is flying along a straight line path, whereas plane B is flying along
a circular path having a radius of curvature of B=400 km. Determine the
velocity and acceleration of B as measured by the pilot of A.

Example 12-27
At the instant shown cars A and B are traveling at speeds of 18 m/s and 12
m/s respectively. Also at this instant, A has a decrease in speed of 2 m/s 2
and B has an increase in speed of 3 m/s 2. Determine the velocity and
acceleration of B with respect to A.