2).

Gauss Law and Applications

Coulombs Law: force on charge i due to
charge j is
qiq j
1
1 qiq j
Fij
r rj
r
3 i
2 ij
4 o r r
4 o rij

rij ri rj

rij ri rj

rij

ri rj
ri rj

Fij

Fij is force on i due to presence of j and acts

along line of centres rij. If qi qj are same sign
then repulsive force is in direction shown

qi
ri-rj

ri

Inverse square law of force

rj
O

qj

Principle of Superposition
Total force on one charge i is
1 qj
Fi qi
r
2 ij
ji 4 o rij
i.e. linear superposition of forces due to all other charges
Test charge: one which does not influence other real
charges samples the electric field, potential
Electric field experienced by a test charge qi ar ri is
Fi
1 qj
Ei ri
r
2 ij
qi ji 4 o rij

Electric Field
Field lines give local direction of field

qj +ve

Field around positive charge directed

away from charge
Field around negative charge directed
towards charge

Principle of superposition used for field

due to a dipole (+ve ve charge
combination). Which is which?

qj -ve

Flux of a Vector Field

Normal component of vector field transports fluid across
element of surface area
Define surface area element as dS = da1 x da2
Magnitude of normal component of vector field V is
V.dS = |V||dS| cos()
da2

For current density j

flux through surface S is
j.dS Cm2s-1

closed surface S

dS
da1

dS`

dS = da1 x da2
|dS| = |da1| |da2|sin(/2)

Flux of Electric Field

Electric field is vector field (c.f. fluid velocity x density)
Element of flux of electric field over closed surface E.dS
da1 r d
n
da 2 r sin d
da2

da1

dS da1 x da 2 r 2 sin d d n
n x
q r 2
E.dS
. r sin d d n r.n 1
2
4 o r
q
q

sin d d
d
4 o
4 o
q
S E.dS o Gauss Law Integral Form

Integral form of Gauss Law

Factors of r2 (area element) and 1/r2 (inverse square law)
cancel in element of flux E.dS
q1 q2
E.dS
d
E.dS depends only on solid angle d
4 o
n
da2
da1

q1

q2

E.dS

o
Point charges: qi enclosed by S
S

(r )dv

V
E
.d
S

(r )dv total charge within v

V

Charge distribution (r) enclosed by S

Differential form of Gauss Law

Integral form

(r )dr

V
E
.d
S

Divergence theorem applied to field V, volume v bounded by

surface S V.n dS V.dS V.V dv
S

V.n dS

.V dv

Divergence theorem applied to electric field E

E.dS .E dv
S

1
V.E dv o

(r )dv

.E(r )

(r )
o

Differential form of Gauss Law

(Poissons Equation)

Apply Gauss Law to charge sheet

(C m-3) is the 3D charge density, many applications make use

of the 2D density (C m-2):

Uniform sheet of charge density Q/A

dA
E
By symmetry, E is perp. to sheet
Same everywhere, outwards on both sides
Surface: cylinder sides + faces
++++++
++++++
perp. to sheet, end faces of area dA
++++++
++++++
Only end faces contribute to integral

E.dS
S

Q encl
.dA

E.2dA
E
o
o
2 o

Apply Gauss Law to charged plate

= Q/2A surface charge density Cm-2 (c.f. Q/A for sheet)
E 2dA = dA/o
E = /2o (outside left surface shown)
E = 0 (inside metal plate)
why??
E

dA
++++

++++

Outside E = /2o + /2o = /o = /2o

Inside fields from opposite faces cancel

++++++
++++++
++++++
++++++

Work of moving charge in E field

FCoulomb=qE
Work done on test charge dW
dW = Fapplied.dl = -FCoulomb.dl = -qE.dl = -qEdl cos
dl cos = dr

q1 1
dW q
dr
2
4 o r
q1
W q
4 o

r2

r1

1 dr
r2

q1 1 1
q

4 o r1 r2
B

q E.dl

B
E

q
dl

r2
A

r1
q1

W is independent ofA the path (E is conservative field)

E.dl 0

any closed path

Potential energy function

Path independence of W leads to potential and potential
energy functions
Introduce electrostatic potential

(r )

q1 1
4 o r

Work done on going from A to B = electrostatic potential

energy difference
W PE(B) - PE( A ) q (B) - ( A )
BA

Zero of potential energy is arbitrary

choose (r) as zero of energy

q E.dl
A

Electrostatic potential
Work done on test charge moving from A to B when charge q1
is at the origin
WBA PE(B) - PE( A ) q (B) - ( A )
Change in potential due to charge q1 a distance of rB from B

(B) - ( A ) (B) - 0
B

E.dl

q1

4 o

q1 1
(B)
4 o rB

rB

1
dr
2
r

Electric field from electrostatic potential

Electric field created by q1 at r = rB
Electric potential created by q1 at rB
Gradient of electric potential
Electric field is therefore E=

q1 r
E
4 o r 3
q1 1
(rB )
4 o r
q1 r
(rB )
4 o r 3

Electrostatic energy of charges

In vacuum
Potential energy of a pair of point charges
Potential energy of a group of point charges
Potential energy of a charge distribution
In a dielectric (later)
Potential energy of free charges

Electrostatic energy of point charges

Work to bring charge q2 to r2 from when q1 is at r1 W2 = q2 2
q1

q1

q2

r12

q2

r12
r13

r23
r1

r1

r2

q1 1
2
4 o r12

r2
r3

q1 1
q2 1
3

4 o r13 4 o r23

NB q2 2 = q1 1 (Could equally well bring charge q1 from )

Work to bring charge q3 to r3 from when q1 is at r1 and q2 is at r2
W3 = q 3 3
Total potential energy of 3 charges = W 2 + W3
qj 1 1
qj
1
W
qi
qi

In general
4
r
2 4
r
o i j

ij

o i j

ij

Electrostatic energy of charge

distribution
For a continuous distribution
1
W
dr (r ) (r )

2 all space
1
(r )
4 o

(r' )
dr'

r r'
all space

1 1
W
2 4 o

(r' )
dr (r ) dr'

r r'
all space
all space

Energy in vacuum in terms of E

Gauss law relates to electric field and potential

Replace in energy expression using Gauss law

.E
and E
o

o 2
o
o
2
1
W

dv

dv

2
2 v
v
2

Expand integrand using identity:

.F = .F + F.
Exercise: write = and F = to show:
2
. 2

2 .

Energy in vacuum in terms of E

o
2
W . dv dv
2 v
v

o
2
.dS dv Green' s first identity
2 S
v

Surface integral replaces volume integral (Divergence theorem)

For pair of point charges, contribution of surface term
1/r -1/r2 dA r2 overall -1/r
Let r and only the volume term is non-zero
o
o
2
2

dv

E
dv

2 all space
2 all space
dW o 2
E (r )
Energy density E (r )
dv
2