Motivation

Concepts
What Is Motivation?

Direction

Intensity Persistence
What Is Motivation?
Motivation
The processes that account for an individual’s intensity,
direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a
goal

Key
KeyElements
Elements
1.
1. Intensity:
Intensity:How
Howhard
hardaaperson
persontries
tries
2.
2. Direction:
Direction:Toward
Towardbeneficial
beneficialgoal
goal
3.
3. Persistence:
Persistence:How
Howlong
longaaperson
persontries
tries
Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)
Hierarchy of Needs Theory
There is a hierarchy of five needs:
physiological, safety, social, esteem,
and self-actualization; as each need
is substantially satisfied, the next
need becomes dominant.

Self-Actualization
The drive to become what one is capable of
becoming
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Lower-Order Needs Higher-Order Needs
Needs that are satisfied Needs that are satisfied
externally; physiological internally; social, esteem,
and safety needs Self and self-actualization
needs. Needs of Mind and
Esteem Spirit

Social

Safety

Physiological
Assumptions of Maslow’s Hierarchy
Movement Up the Pyramid
Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until all
needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied.

Maslow
MaslowApplication
Application
AAhomeless
homelessperson
person
will
willnot
notbe
bemotivated
motivatedto
to
meditate!
meditate!
 McGregor
Having Little Ambition

Theory X Disliking Work

Managers See Workers as…

Avoiding Responsibility

Self-Directed

Theory Y Enjoying Work

Managers See Workers as…

Accepting Responsibility
 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene
Factors/Dis Separate Constructs Motivators/Sat
– Hygiene Factors—Extrinsic and
satisfiers. Related to Dissatisfaction isfiers
•Company •Achievement
– Motivation Factors—Intrinsic
Policies and Related to Satisfaction
•Responsibility
•Salary •Growth
•Work
Conditions Build Motivation but their absence is
rarely dissatisfying

When present they bring employees

To a neutral side and do not motivate them.

Motivation and Lack of Motivation are not opposites

Wondering why certain policies and Fringe benefits are not increasing Employee motivation.
Comparison of Satisfiers
and Dissatisfiers

Factors characterizing events

on the job that led to extreme
job dissatisfaction Factors characterizing
events on the job that led
to extreme job
satisfaction
David McClelland’s Theory of Needs

Need for Achievement Need for Affiliation

The drive to excel, to climb The desire for friendly
the ladder of success, work and close personal
hard when personal credit relationships
is given.

Need for Power Need for Competence

The need to influence Not How much I can do but

people and change How well I can do
situations. Willing to take
risks, Create an impact on
organization.
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior that had
been previously only intrinsically rewarding tends to
decrease the overall level of motivation
The theory may be relevant only to
jobs that are neither extremely
dull nor extremely interesting. Hint: For this theory,
think about how fun it is
to read in the summer,
but once reading is
assigned to you for a
grade, you don’t want
to do it!
Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)

Basic Premise: That specific and difficult goals, with

self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance.

But, the relationship between goals and performance

will depend on:
•Goal commitment
–“I want to do it & I can do it”
•Task characteristics (simple, well-learned)
•National culture
What Is MBO

Management by Objectives (MBO)

A program that encompasses specific goals,
participatively set, for an explicit time period, with
feedback on goal progress

Key
KeyElements
Elements
1.1. Goal
Goalspecificity
specificity
2.2. Participative
Participativedecision
decisionmaking
making
3.3. An
Anexplicit
explicittime
timeperiod
period
4.4. Performance
Performancefeedback
feedback
 Why MBOs Fail
 Unrealistic expectations about MBO
results
 Lack of commitment by top management
 Failure to allocate reward properly
 Cultural incompatibilities
 Self-Efficacy

•An individual’s feeling that she/he can complete

a task (e.g. “I know I can!”)
•Enhances probability that goals will be
achieved

Not to be confused with:

Self-esteem, which is:

Individuals’ degree of liking or disliking
themselves
Four Ways of Increasing Self-efficacy (Bandura)

1. Enactive Mastery
2. Vicarious Modeling
3. Verbal Persuasion
4. Arousal
 Equity Theory

Equity Theory
Employees tend to judge fairness by comparing the
outcomes they receive with their relevant inputs and also
by ratios of other people
Input includes- all rich and diverse elements that employee
Believe they bring or contribute to their job. Their education,
prior work experience, commitment, time and effort.

Outcome includes- direct pay and bonuses, fringe benefits,

job security, psychological rewards

If better rewarded work harder,

If employees are under rewarded bargain or quit.
Expectancy Theory
 Developed by Victor. H. Vroom.
 Says that motivation is a product of three factors

 VALENCE-How much one wants a reward

 EXPECTANCY- Estimate of the probability that
effort will result in successful performance
 INSTRUMENTALITY-Estimate that Performance
will result in receiving the reward
Valence
 How much one wants a reward

 Every person has different different valence for

different reward

 A persons valence for a reward may also change

over a period of Time
Expectancy
 Estimate of the probability that effort will result in
successful performance
 If employee feels that there is no chance that effort
will lead to performance than expectancy will be Zero

Instrumentality
 Employees belief that a reward will be received once
the task is accomplished
 Ex- promotions data- high instrumentality…..
Managerial favoritism is suspected- low
instrumentality
Alderfer’s E-R-G Model
 Existence needs-Combine physiological and security
factors, Pay, Physical working conditions

 Relatedness needs-Involve being understood and

accepted by people

 Growth needs – self esteem , self actualization

 Behavior Modification
 Concept of Intrinsic motivation and Extrinsic
Motivation
 Content Theories(Models of McClelland, Maslow,
Alderfer)
 Process theories (0B Modification)
 Positive Reinforcement(Shaping)(Frequent or more powerful
reinforcement given as employees given as employees come closer to desired beh)

 Negative Reinforcement(removal of an unfavorable

consequence)
 Punishment(adding unfavorable consequences that discourages
a certain behavior)
 Extinction(withholding of certain positive behaviors which were
previously given)
Motivation: From
Concepts to
Applications
Job Design Theory
Motivation by changing the nature of the Work Environment

Job Characteristics
Model Characteristics
Characteristics
Identifies five job 1.1. Skill
Skillvariety
variety
characteristics and their
relationship to personal and 2.2. Task
Taskidentity
identity
work outcomes 3.3. Task
Tasksignificance
significance
4.4. Autonomy
Autonomy
5.5. Feedback
Feedback
Job Design Theory (cont’d)
Skill Variety
The degree to which a job requires a variety of
different activities (how may different skills are
used in a given day, week, month?)

Task Identity
The degree to which the job requires completion of a
whole and identifiable piece of work (from beginning to
end)

Task Significance
The degree to which the job has a substantial impact on
the lives or work of other people
Job Design Theory (cont’d)
Autonomy
The degree to which the job provides substantial freedom
and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work
and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying
it out

Feedback
Clear information about the effectiveness of his or her
performance
Job Design and Scheduling
How can jobs be redesigned

Job Rotation
The periodic shifting of a worker from
one task to another

Job Enlargement
The horizontal expansion of
jobs

Job Enrichment
The vertical expansion of jobs
Alternative Work Arrangements
Flextime
Employees work during a common core time period each
day but have discretion in forming their total workday from
a flexible set of hours outside the core.

Job Sharing
The practice of having two or more people split a 40-
hour-a-week job
Example of a Flextime Schedule
 Alternative Work Arrangements, cont.

Telecommuting
Employees do their work at home on a computer that is
linked to their office.

Advantages- Higher productivity, Less Turnover,

Improved morale, Reduced Office Space Cost

Disadvantages-(Employer)- Difficult to coordinate

teamwork, Difficult to Evaluate performance ,
Less Direct Supervision
What Is Employee Involvement?
Employee Involvement Program
A participative process that uses the entire capacity of
employees and is designed to encourage increased
commitment to the organization’s success
Examples of Employee Involvement Programs

Participative Management
A process in which subordinates share a significant
degree of decision-making power with their immediate
superiors
Example of Employee Involvement
Programs
Quality Circle
A work group of employees who meet regularly to
discuss their quality problems, investigate causes,
recommend solutions, and take corrective actions
Rewarding Employees: Four Aspects

•What to Pay (Internal vs. external equity)

•How to Pay (e.g., Piece rate, merit based, bonuses,
profit sharing, gain sharing, skill-based pay)
•What Benefits to Offer (e.g., Flexible benefits)
•How to Recognize Employees
Flexible Benefits

Employees tailor their

benefit program to Core-Plus
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Plans Flexible
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