ACIDS, BASES

& SALTS

ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY

water is a neutral substance
when substances dissolve in water, the solution may become
ACIDIC or ALKALINE or stay NEUTRAL

ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY

water is a neutral substance
when substances dissolve in water, the solution may become
ACIDIC or ALKALINE or stay NEUTRAL
hydrogen ions H+(aq) make solutions acidic
hydroxide ions OH(aq) make solutions alkaline
solutions with equal numbers of H+(aq)

and OH(aq) are neutral

INDICATORS
show by a colour change if a solution is acidic, alkaline or neutral
some can even show how acidic or how alkaline a solution is

INDICATORS
show by a colour change if a solution is acidic, alkaline or neutral
some can even show how acidic or how alkaline a solution is
well known indicators include

INDICATORS
show by a colour change if a solution is acidic, alkaline or neutral
some can even show how acidic or how alkaline a solution is
well known indicators include
LITMUS
acidic RED

alkaline BLUE

neutral PURPLE

INDICATORS
show by a colour change if a solution is acidic, alkaline or neutral
some can even show how acidic or how alkaline a solution is
well known indicators include
LITMUS
acidic RED

alkaline BLUE

neutral PURPLE

INDICATORS
show by a colour change if a solution is acidic, alkaline or neutral
some can even show how acidic or how alkaline a solution is
well known indicators include
LITMUS
acidic RED

alkaline BLUE

neutral PURPLE

UNIVERSAL
acidic RED

alkaline VIOLET

neutral GREEN

INDICATORS
show by a colour change if a solution is acidic, alkaline or neutral
some can even show how acidic or how alkaline a solution is
well known indicators include
LITMUS
acidic RED

alkaline BLUE

neutral PURPLE

UNIVERSAL
acidic RED

alkaline VIOLET

neutral GREEN

pH SCALE

pH SCALE
Used to compare the relative acidity (and alkalinity) of solutions.
The value is related to the concentration of H+ions, in solution.

pH SCALE
Used to compare the relative acidity (and alkalinity) of solutions.
The value is related to the concentration of H+ions, in solution.

The greater the concentration of hydrogen ions

in solution, the lower the pH

pH SCALE
Used to compare the relative acidity (and alkalinity) of solutions.
The value is related to the concentration of H+ions, in solution.

The greater the concentration of hydrogen ions

in solution, the lower the pH
< 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
strongly
acidic

weakly
acidic

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 >

neutral
weakly
strongly
alkaline
alkaline

pH SCALE
Used to compare the relative acidity (and alkalinity) of solutions.
The value is related to the concentration of H+ions, in solution.

The greater the concentration of hydrogen ions

in solution, the lower the pH
< 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
strongly
acidic

weakly
acidic

HCl

CH3COOH

HYDROCHLORIC
ETHANOIC
ACID
ACID

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 >

neutral
weakly
strongly
alkaline
alkaline

H2O

NH3

AMMONIA
SODIUM
HYDROXIDE

NaOH

pH SCALE
Used to compare the relative acidity (and alkalinity) of solutions.
The value is related to the concentration of H+ions, in solution.

The greater the concentration of hydrogen ions

in solution, the lower the pH
< 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
strongly
acidic

weakly
acidic

HCl

CH3COOH

HYDROCHLORIC
ETHANOIC
ACID
ACID

Acidic solutions
Alkaline solutions
Neutral solutions

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 >

neutral
weakly
strongly
alkaline
alkaline

H2O

NH3

AMMONIA
SODIUM
HYDROXIDE

pH < 7
pH > 7
pH = 7

NaOH

pH SCALE
Despite what some people think, the pH scale is not restricted to
between 0 and 14. It extends beyond those values, but is not as
relevant; e.g. the pH of the dilute HCl and H2SO4 found on the
laboratory shelves is -0.3 and -0.6 respectively.

pH SCALE
Despite what some people think, the pH scale is not restricted to
between 0 and 14. It extends beyond those values, but is not as
relevant; e.g. the pH of the dilute HCl and H2SO4 found on the
laboratory shelves is -0.3 and -0.6 respectively.
Weak acids have higher pH values than stronger ones of the same
concentration.
Ethanoic acid CH3COOH has a larger pH than
hydrochloric acid HCl of the same concentration.

MEASURING pH
Indicator

Add a few drops of universal (full-range) indicator to

the solution and compare the colour against a chart.
The colour you see depends not only on how many
drops of indicator you add but also on your perception
of colour.

MEASURING pH
Indicator

Add a few drops of universal (full-range) indicator to

the solution and compare the colour against a chart.
The colour you see depends not only on how many
drops of indicator you add but also on your perception
of colour.

pH meters Electrical/electronic devices which measure the

conductivity of the solution.
Having calibrated the apparatus against a solution of
known pH, you place the probe in any solution and read
off the pH value on a scale or digital read-out.

ACIDS

ACIDS
Definition ACIDS ARE PROTON (H+ ion) DONORS
Categories Acids can be arranged into groups according to
how many H+ ions they produce from each molecule

ACIDS
Definition ACIDS ARE PROTON (H+ ion) DONORS
Categories Acids can be arranged into groups according to
how many H+ ions they produce from each molecule
ACID

SALTS

hydrochloric HCl
nitric
HNO3
ethanoic

ION

EXAMPLE

chloride
Cl
nitrate
NO3

CH3COOH ethanoate CH3COO

NaCl
NaNO3
CH3COONa

THE ABOVE ARE MONOPROTIC (MONOBASIC) ACIDS

ACIDS
Definition ACIDS ARE PROTON (H+ ion) DONORS
Categories Acids can be arranged into groups according to
how many H+ ions they produce from each molecule
ACID

SALTS

hydrochloric HCl
nitric
HNO3
ethanoic

ION

EXAMPLE

chloride
Cl
nitrate
NO3

NaCl
NaNO3

CH3COOH ethanoate CH3COO

CH3COONa

THE ABOVE ARE MONOPROTIC (MONOBASIC)ACIDS

sulphuric H2SO4

hydrogensulphate
sulphate

carbonic H2CO3

SO42-

HSO4
Na2SO4

hydrogencarbonate HCO3
carbonate CO32-

NaHSO4

Na2CO3

NaHCO3

ACIDS
Definition ACIDS ARE PROTON (H+ ion) DONORS
Categories Acids can also arranged into groups according to
the extent they split into ions when put in water.

ACIDS
Definition ACIDS ARE PROTON (H+ ion) DONORS
Categories Acids can also arranged into groups according to
the extent they split into ions when put in water.
STRONG ACIDS COMPLETELY dissociate (split up) into ions
e.g. sulphuric, hydrochloric, nitric

ACIDS
Definition ACIDS ARE PROTON (H+ ion) DONORS
Categories Acids can also arranged into groups according to
the extent they split into ions when put in water.
STRONG ACIDS COMPLETELY dissociate (split up) into ions
e.g. sulphuric, hydrochloric, nitric

WEAK ACIDS

PARTIALLY dissociate (split up) into ions

e.g. ethanoic, citric, carbonic

ACIDS
Definition ACIDS ARE PROTON (H+ ion) DONORS
Categories Acids can also arranged into groups according to
the extent they split into ions when put in water.
STRONG ACIDS COMPLETELY dissociate (split up) into ions
e.g. sulphuric, hydrochloric, nitric

WEAK ACIDS

PARTIALLY dissociate (split up) into ions

e.g. ethanoic, citric, carbonic

This means that if you take similar concentrations of HCl and

CH3COOH, the concentration of H+ ions in the solution of CH3COOH
will be less as only a few of its molecules will have split up into ions.
Its pH will consequently be higher.

ACIDS
Reactions The hydrogen ions produced by acids can be replaced
by other positive ions (metal ions or ammonium ions)
to produce salts. This occurs when dilute acids react
with metals, oxides of metals, hydroxides of metals,
carbonates, hydrogencarbonates and ammonia.

ACIDS
Reactions The hydrogen ions produced by acids can be replaced
by other positive ions (metal ions or ammonium ions)
to produce salts. This occurs when dilute acids react
with metals, oxides of metals, hydroxides of metals,
carbonates, hydrogen carbonates and ammonia.
HYDROCHLORIC ACID
SODIUM HYDROXIDE

SODIUM
CHLORIDE

ZINC

AMMONIA

COPPER OXIDE

AMMONIUM
CHLORIDE

MAGNESIUM
CARBONATE

ZINC
CHLORIDE

MAGNESIUM
CHLORIDE

COPPER
CHLORIDE

ACIDS
Reactions The hydrogen ions produced by acids can be replaced
by other positive ions (metal ions or ammonium ions)
to produce salts. This occurs when dilute acids react
with metals, oxides of metals, hydroxides of metals,
carbonates, hydrogen carbonates and ammonia.
SULPHURIC ACID
SODIUM HYDROXIDE

SODIUM
SULPHATE

ZINC

AMMONIA

COPPER OXIDE

AMMONIUM
SULPHATE

MAGNESIUM
CARBONATE

ZINC
SULPHATE

MAGNESIUM
SULPHATE

COPPER
SULPHATE

MAKING SALTS - POSSIBILITIES

IS THE SALT SOLUBLE
OR INSOLUBLE?

MIX SOLUTIONS OF
TWO SUITABLE SALTS
TO PRECIPITATE THE
INSOLUBLE SALT

INSOLUBLE

FILTER OFF
THE SALT

SOLUBLE

DOES THE METAL

REACT WITH DILUTE
ACIDS?

NO

IS THE METAL OXIDE

OR CARBONATE
SOLUBLE IN WATER?

YES

IS IT
SAFE?

NO
NO
YES

YES

ADD EXCESS METAL

TO THE ACID THEN
FILTER OFF THE
EXCESS METAL

ADD EXCESS METAL

OXIDE OR METAL
CARBONATE TO ACID
THEN FILTER OFF THE
EXCESS SOLID

TITRATE THE METAL

HYDROXIDE WITH
ACID

CRYSTALLISE
THE SALT
FROM THE
FILTRATE

PREPARATION OF SOLUBLE SALTS

Salts can be made by NEUTRALISATION of acids;

acidic solutions contain aqueous hydrogen ions H+(aq)

sulphuric acid produces a sulphate
hydrochloric acid produces a chloride
nitric acid produces a nitrate

PREPARATION OF SOLUBLE SALTS

Salts can be made by NEUTRALISATION of acids;

acidic solutions contain aqueous hydrogen ions H+(aq)

sulphuric acid produces a sulphate
hydrochloric acid produces a chloride
nitric acid produces a nitrate

Other chemicals are formed, it depends on what is neutralising the acid.

OXIDES
SALT +
HYDROXIDES
SALT
CARBONATES
SALT
METALS
SALT +

WATER
+ WATER
+ CARBON DIOXIDE + WATER
HYDROGEN

(not all metals are suitable; some are too reactive; others are not reactive enough)

PREPARATION OF SALTS BY NEUTRALISATION

MAKING SALTS FROM INSOLUBLE BASES

IS THE SALT SOLUBLE
OR INSOLUBLE?

MIX SOLUTIONS OF
TWO SUITABLE SALTS
TO PRECIPITATE THE
INSOLUBLE SALT

INSOLUBLE

FILTER OFF
THE SALT

SOLUBLE

DOES THE METAL

REACT WITH DILUTE
ACIDS?

NO

IS THE METAL OXIDE

OR CARBONATE
SOLUBLE IN WATER?

YES

IS IT
SAFE?

NO
NO
YES

YES

ADD EXCESS METAL

TO THE ACID THEN
FILTER OFF THE
EXCESS METAL

ADD EXCESS METAL

OXIDE OR METAL
CARBONATE TO ACID
THEN FILTER OFF THE
EXCESS SOLID

TITRATE THE METAL

HYDROXIDE WITH
ACID

CRYSTALLISE
THE SALT
FROM THE
FILTRATE

PREPARATION OF SALTS BY NEUTRALISATION

Acid with excess insoluble oxide

PREPARATION OF SALTS BY NEUTRALISATION

Acid with excess insoluble oxide
1

Place dilute acid in a beaker and warm it

gently without letting it boil (reactions are
faster at higher temperatures)

PREPARATION OF SALTS BY NEUTRALISATION

Acid with excess insoluble oxide
1

Place dilute acid in a beaker and warm it

gently without letting it boil (reactions are
faster at higher temperatures)

2.

Remove the heat

PREPARATION OF SALTS BY NEUTRALISATION

Acid with excess insoluble oxide
1

Place dilute acid in a beaker and warm it

gently without letting it boil (reactions are
faster at higher temperatures)

2.

Remove the heat

3.

Carefully and slowly add small amounts of

the solid while stirring (most reactions of
this type are exothermic i.e. they give off
energy - the energy released would make
the solution boil over)

PREPARATION OF SALTS BY NEUTRALISATION

Acid with excess insoluble oxide
1

Place dilute acid in a beaker and warm it

gently without letting it boil (reactions are
faster at higher temperatures)

2.

Remove the heat

3.

Carefully and slowly add small amounts of

the solid while stirring (most reactions of
this type are exothermic i.e. they give off
energy - the energy released would make
the solution boil over)

4.

Continue adding the solid until no more

dissolves (this ensures all the acid has
been used - it is easier to filter off excess
solid than extract excess acid).

PREPARATION OF SALTS BY NEUTRALISATION

Acid with excess insoluble oxide
5.

Filter the solution into an evaporating dish

to remove excess solid

PREPARATION OF SALTS BY NEUTRALISATION

Acid with excess insoluble oxide
5.

Filter the solution into an evaporating dish

to remove excess solid

6.

Transfer the dish to a tripod and carefully

warm the mixture to remove some of the
water. Too much heat will drive off any
water of crystallisation.

PREPARATION OF SALTS BY NEUTRALISATION

Acid with excess insoluble oxide
5.

Filter the solution into an evaporating dish

to remove excess solid

6.

Transfer the dish to a tripod and carefully

warm the mixture to remove some of the
water. Too much heat will drive off any
water of crystallisation.

7.

When some of the water has been

evaporated, let the solution to cool;
(allows crystallisation takes place)

PREPARATION OF SALTS BY NEUTRALISATION

Acid with excess insoluble oxide
5.

Filter the solution into an evaporating dish

to remove excess solid

6.

Transfer the dish to a tripod and carefully

warm the mixture to remove some of the
water. Too much heat will drive off any
water of crystallisation.

7.

When some of the water has been

evaporated, let the solution to cool;
(allows crystallisation takes place)

8.

When sufficient crystals have appeared, filter them off, wash with a little
cold water and transfer them to a filter paper. Place another filter paper
over the top and press gently to help remove some of the water.

PREPARATION OF SALTS BY NEUTRALISATION

Acid with excess insoluble oxide
5.

Filter the solution into an evaporating dish

to remove excess solid

6.

Transfer the dish to a tripod and carefully

warm the mixture to remove some of the
water. Too much heat will drive off any
water of crystallisation.

7.

When some of the water has been

evaporated, let the solution to cool;
(allows crystallisation takes place)

8.

When sufficient crystals have appeared, filter them off, wash with a little
cold water and transfer them to a filter paper. Place another filter paper
over the top and press gently to help remove some of the water.

9.

Allow the crystals to dry naturally in air. (heat can cause the crystals to
decompose and lose their water of crystallisation)

PREPARATION OF SALTS BY NEUTRALISATION

Acid with excess insoluble carbonate

PREPARATION OF SALTS BY NEUTRALISATION

Acid with excess insoluble carbonate
The method used is similar to that used with acids and metal oxides.
The main differences is that it is not necessary to use heat and that
carbon dioxide gas is given off so you have to make sure the solution
doesnt effervesce (fizz) too much.

PREPARATION OF SALTS BY NEUTRALISATION

Acid with excess insoluble carbonate
The method used is similar to that used with acids and metal oxides.
The main differences is that it is not necessary to use heat and that
carbon dioxide gas is given off so you have to make sure the solution
doesnt effervesce (fizz) too much.
1

Place dilute acid in a beaker

PREPARATION OF SALTS BY NEUTRALISATION

Acid with excess insoluble carbonate
The method used is similar to that used with acids and metal oxides.
The main differences is that it is not necessary to use heat and that
carbon dioxide gas is given off so you have to make sure the solution
doesnt effervesce (fizz) too much.
1

Place dilute acid in a beaker

2.

Carefully and slowly add small amounts of

the solid carbonate while stirring make
sure there is not too much effervescence.

PREPARATION OF SALTS BY NEUTRALISATION

Acid with excess insoluble carbonate
The method used is similar to that used with acids and metal oxides.
The main differences is that it is not necessary to use heat and that
carbon dioxide gas is given off so you have to make sure the solution
doesnt effervesce (fizz) too much.
1

Place dilute acid in a beaker

2.

Carefully and slowly add small amounts of

the solid carbonate while stirring make
sure there is not too much effervescence.

3.

Continue adding the solid carbonate until

no more dissolves (this ensures all the
acid has been used - it is easier to filter off
excess solid than extract excess acid).

PREPARATION OF SALTS BY NEUTRALISATION

Acid with excess insoluble carbonate
4.

Filter the solution into an evaporating dish

to remove excess solid

PREPARATION OF SALTS BY NEUTRALISATION

Acid with excess insoluble carbonate
4.

Filter the solution into an evaporating dish

to remove excess solid

5.

Transfer the dish to a tripod and carefully

warm the mixture to remove some of the
water. Too much heat will drive off any
water of crystallisation.

PREPARATION OF SALTS BY NEUTRALISATION

Acid with excess insoluble carbonate
4.

Filter the solution into an evaporating dish

to remove excess solid

5.

Transfer the dish to a tripod and carefully

warm the mixture to remove some of the
water. Too much heat will drive off any
water of crystallisation.

6.

When some of the water has been

evaporated, let the solution to cool;
(allows crystallisation takes place)

PREPARATION OF SALTS BY NEUTRALISATION

Acid with excess insoluble carbonate
4.

Filter the solution into an evaporating dish

to remove excess solid

5.

Transfer the dish to a tripod and carefully

warm the mixture to remove some of the
water. Too much heat will drive off any
water of crystallisation.

6.

When some of the water has been

evaporated, let the solution to cool;
(allows crystallisation takes place)

7.

When sufficient crystals have appeared, filter them off, wash with a little
cold water and transfer them to a filter paper. Place another filter paper
over the top and press gently to help remove some of the water.

PREPARATION OF SALTS BY NEUTRALISATION

Acid with excess insoluble carbonate
4.

Filter the solution into an evaporating dish

to remove excess solid

5.

Transfer the dish to a tripod and carefully

warm the mixture to remove some of the
water. Too much heat will drive off any
water of crystallisation.

6.

When some of the water has been

evaporated, let the solution to cool;
(allows crystallisation takes place)

7.

When sufficient crystals have appeared, filter them off, wash with a little
cold water and transfer them to a filter paper. Place another filter paper
over the top and press gently to help remove some of the water.

8.

Allow the crystals to dry naturally in air. (heat can cause the crystals to
decompose and lose their water of crystallisation)

MAKING SALTS FROM METALS

IS THE SALT SOLUBLE
OR INSOLUBLE?

MIX SOLUTIONS OF
TWO SUITABLE SALTS
TO PRECIPITATE THE
INSOLUBLE SALT

INSOLUBLE

FILTER OFF
THE SALT

SOLUBLE

DOES THE METAL

REACT WITH DILUTE
ACIDS?

NO

IS THE METAL OXIDE

OR CARBONATE
SOLUBLE IN WATER?

YES

IS IT
SAFE?

NO
NO
YES

YES

ADD EXCESS METAL

TO THE ACID THEN
FILTER OFF THE
EXCESS METAL

ADD EXCESS METAL

OXIDE OR METAL
CARBONATE TO ACID
THEN FILTER OFF THE
EXCESS SOLID

TITRATE THE METAL

HYDROXIDE WITH
ACID

CRYSTALLISE
THE SALT
FROM THE
FILTRATE

PREPARATION OF SALTS BY NEUTRALISATION

Acid with excess metal

PREPARATION OF SALTS BY NEUTRALISATION

Acid with excess metal
The method used is similar to that used with acids and metal oxides
or metal carbonates. However, because hydrogen is produced during
the experiment, Bunsen burners must not be used while the chemical
reaction is taking place.
Not all metals are suitable:
some are too reactive
some dont react
Cu

K, Na, Ca

PREPARATION OF SALTS BY NEUTRALISATION

Acid with excess metal
The method used is similar to that used with acids and metal oxides
or metal carbonates. However, because hydrogen is produced during
the experiment, Bunsen burners must not be used while the chemical
reaction is taking place.
Not all metals are suitable:
some are too reactive
some dont react
Cu
1

Place dilute acid in a beaker

K, Na, Ca

PREPARATION OF SALTS BY NEUTRALISATION

Acid with excess metal
The method used is similar to that used with acids and metal oxides
or metal carbonates. However, because hydrogen is produced during
the experiment, Bunsen burners must not be used while the chemical
reaction is taking place.
Not all metals are suitable:
some are too reactive
some dont react
Cu
1

Place dilute acid in a beaker

2.

Carefully and slowly add small amounts of

the metal while stirring make sure there
is not too much effervescence.

K, Na, Ca

PREPARATION OF SALTS BY NEUTRALISATION

Acid with excess metal
The method used is similar to that used with acids and metal oxides
or metal carbonates. However, because hydrogen is produced during
the experiment, Bunsen burners must not be used while the chemical
reaction is taking place.
Not all metals are suitable:
some are too reactive
some dont react
Cu
1

Place dilute acid in a beaker

2.

Carefully and slowly add small amounts of

the metal while stirring make sure there
is not too much effervescence.

3.

Continue adding the metal until no more

dissolves (this ensures all the acid has
been used - it is easier to filter off excess
metal than extract excess acid).

K, Na, Ca

PREPARATION OF SALTS BY NEUTRALISATION

Acid with excess metal
4.

Filter the solution into an evaporating dish

to remove excess metal

PREPARATION OF SALTS BY NEUTRALISATION

Acid with excess metal
4.

Filter the solution into an evaporating dish

to remove excess metal

5.

Transfer the dish to a tripod and carefully

warm the mixture to remove some of the
water. Too much heat will drive off any
water of crystallisation.

PREPARATION OF SALTS BY NEUTRALISATION

Acid with excess metal
4.

Filter the solution into an evaporating dish

to remove excess metal

5.

Transfer the dish to a tripod and carefully

warm the mixture to remove some of the
water. Too much heat will drive off any
water of crystallisation.

6.

When some of the water has been

evaporated, let the solution to cool;
(allows crystallisation takes place)

PREPARATION OF SALTS BY NEUTRALISATION

Acid with excess metal
4.

Filter the solution into an evaporating dish

to remove excess metal

5.

Transfer the dish to a tripod and carefully

warm the mixture to remove some of the
water. Too much heat will drive off any
water of crystallisation.

6.

When some of the water has been

evaporated, let the solution to cool;
(allows crystallisation takes place)

7.

When sufficient crystals have appeared, filter them off, wash with a little
cold water and transfer them to a filter paper. Place another filter paper
over the top and press gently to help remove some of the water.

PREPARATION OF SALTS BY NEUTRALISATION

Acid with excess metal
4.

Filter the solution into an evaporating dish

to remove excess metal

5.

Transfer the dish to a tripod and carefully

warm the mixture to remove some of the
water. Too much heat will drive off any
water of crystallisation.

6.

When some of the water has been

evaporated, let the solution to cool;
(allows crystallisation takes place)

7.

When sufficient crystals have appeared, filter them off, wash with a little
cold water and transfer them to a filter paper. Place another filter paper
over the top and press gently to help remove some of the water.

8.

Allow the crystals to dry naturally in air. (heat can cause the crystals to
decompose and lose their water of crystallisation)

MAKING SALTS FROM SOLUBLE BASES (ALKALIS)

IS THE SALT SOLUBLE
OR INSOLUBLE?

MIX SOLUTIONS OF
TWO SUITABLE SALTS
TO PRECIPITATE THE
INSOLUBLE SALT

INSOLUBLE

FILTER OFF
THE SALT

SOLUBLE

DOES THE METAL

REACT WITH DILUTE
ACIDS?

NO

IS THE METAL OXIDE

OR CARBONATE
SOLUBLE IN WATER?

YES

IS IT
SAFE?

NO
NO
YES

YES

ADD EXCESS METAL

TO THE ACID THEN
FILTER OFF THE
EXCESS METAL

ADD EXCESS METAL

OXIDE OR METAL
CARBONATE TO ACID
THEN FILTER OFF THE
EXCESS SOLID

TITRATE THE METAL

HYDROXIDE WITH
ACID

CRYSTALLISE
THE SALT
FROM THE
FILTRATE

ALKALIS

ALKALIS
Definition ALKALIS ARE SOLUBLE BASES
Their solutions contain hydroxide ions, OH(aq)

ALKALIS
Definition ALKALIS ARE SOLUBLE BASES
Their solutions contain hydroxide ions, OH(aq)
STRONG ALKALIS sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
potassium hydroxide (KOH)
WEAK ALKALIS

ammonia solution (ammonium hydroxide) (NH4OH)

ALKALIS
Definition ALKALIS ARE SOLUBLE BASES
Their solutions contain hydroxide ions, OH(aq)
STRONG ALKALIS sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
potassium hydroxide (KOH)
WEAK ALKALIS

ammonia solution (ammonium hydroxide) (NH4OH)

Making salts using alkalis cannot be done by the methods used for
insoluble bases because you cannot tell when all the acid has been
neutralised the excess alkali is soluble.

ALKALIS
Definition ALKALIS ARE SOLUBLE BASES
Their solutions contain hydroxide ions, OH(aq)
STRONG ALKALIS sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
potassium hydroxide (KOH)
WEAK ALKALIS

ammonia solution (ammonium hydroxide) (NH4OH)

Making salts using alkalis cannot be done by the methods used for
insoluble bases because you cannot tell when all the acid has been
neutralised the excess alkali is soluble.
The salts are made by titration using an indicator
ACID + ALKALINE HYDROXIDE > NEUTRAL SALT + WATER
SOLUTION
SOLUTION

ALKALIS
Definition ALKALIS ARE SOLUBLE BASES
Their solutions contain hydroxide ions, OH(aq)
STRONG ALKALIS sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
potassium hydroxide (KOH)
WEAK ALKALIS

ammonia solution (ammonium hydroxide) (NH4OH)

Making salts using alkalis cannot be done by the methods used for
insoluble bases because you cannot tell when all the acid has been
neutralised the excess alkali is soluble.
The salts are made by titration using an indicator
ACID + ALKALINE HYDROXIDE > NEUTRAL SALT + WATER
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
The indicator tells you when the acid has been neutralised

AMMONIUM SALTS
Ammonia is very soluble in water giving an alkaline solution which
can be neutralised by acids to produce AMMONIUM SALTS
e.g.

AMMONIA + HYDROCHLORIC > AMMONIUM

SOLUTION
ACID
CHLORIDE

AMMONIUM SALTS
Ammonia is very soluble in water giving an alkaline solution which
can be neutralised by acids to produce AMMONIUM SALTS
e.g.

AMMONIA + HYDROCHLORIC > AMMONIUM

SOLUTION
ACID
CHLORIDE

If ammonium hydroxide is specified you can write the equation

AMMONIUM + HYDROCHLORIC >
AMMONIUM + WATER
HYDROXIDE
ACID
CHLORIDE

Ammonium salts make very important fertilisers

MAKING SALTS BY TITRATION

This method is limited to the soluble salts of ammonia or alkali metals
e.g.
ammonium chloride
NH4Cl
sodium chloride
NaCl
potassium sulphate
K2SO4
sodium nitrate
NaNO3

MAKING SALTS BY TITRATION

This method is limited to the soluble salts of ammonia or alkali metals
e.g.
ammonium chloride
NH4Cl
sodium chloride
NaCl
potassium sulphate
K2SO4
sodium nitrate
NaNO3
Method

React an acid with an alkali (hydroxides of Group I

metals and ammonia). The method involves TITRATION.

MAKING SALTS BY TITRATION

This method is limited to the soluble salts of ammonia or alkali metals
e.g.
ammonium chloride
NH4Cl
sodium chloride
NaCl
potassium sulphate
K2SO4
sodium nitrate
NaNO3
Method
1
2
3
4
5
6

React an acid with an alkali (hydroxides of Group I

metals and ammonia). The method involves TITRATION.

Place a measured quantity of acid in a conical flask.

Add three or four drops of a suitable indicator.
Place the alkali in a burette. Note the level of the liquid.
Add the alkali to the acid until the indicator just changes colour
Note the new level of liquid.
Repeat experiment with exactly the same volumes but no indicator.
Evaporate a small amount of the water in an evaporating basin and
let the solution cool to allow crystals to form.

MAKING SALTS BY TITRATION

This method is limited to the soluble salts of ammonia or alkali metals
e.g.
ammonium chloride
NH4Cl
sodium chloride
NaCl
potassium sulphate
K2SO4
sodium nitrate
NaNO3
Method
1
2
3
4
5
6

React an acid with an alkali (hydroxides of Group I

metals and ammonia). The method involves TITRATION.

Place a measured quantity of acid in a conical flask.

Add three or four drops of a suitable indicator.
Place the alkali in a burette. Note the level of the liquid.
Add the alkali to the acid until the indicator just changes colour
Note the new level of liquid.
Repeat experiment with exactly the same volumes but no indicator.
Evaporate a small amount of the water in an evaporating basin and
let the solution cool to allow crystals to form.

MAKING SALTS BY TITRATION

This method is limited to the soluble salts of ammonia or alkali metals
e.g.
ammonium chloride
NH4Cl
sodium chloride
NaCl
potassium sulphate
K2SO4
sodium nitrate
NaNO3
Method
1
2
3
4
5
6

React an acid with an alkali (hydroxides of Group I

metals and ammonia). The method involves TITRATION.

Place a measured quantity of acid in a conical flask.

Add three or four drops of a suitable indicator.
Place the alkali in a burette. Note the level of the liquid.
Add the alkali to the acid until the indicator just changes colour
Note the new level of liquid.
Repeat experiment with exactly the same volumes but no indicator.
Evaporate a small amount of the water in an evaporating basin and
let the solution cool to allow crystals to form.

MAKING SALTS BY TITRATION

This method is limited to the soluble salts of ammonia or alkali metals
e.g.
ammonium chloride
NH4Cl
sodium chloride
NaCl
potassium sulphate
K2SO4
sodium nitrate
NaNO3
Method
1
2
3
4
5
6

React an acid with an alkali (hydroxides of Group I

metals and ammonia). The method involves TITRATION.

Place a measured quantity of acid in a conical flask.

Add three or four drops of a suitable indicator.
Place the alkali in a burette. Note the level of the liquid.
Add the alkali to the acid until the indicator just changes colour
Note the new level of liquid.
Repeat experiment with exactly the same volumes but no indicator.
Evaporate a small amount of the water in an evaporating basin and
let the solution cool to allow crystals to form.

MAKING SALTS BY TITRATION

This method is limited to the soluble salts of ammonia or alkali metals
e.g.
ammonium chloride
NH4Cl
sodium chloride
NaCl
potassium sulphate
K2SO4
sodium nitrate
NaNO3
Method
1
2
3
4
5
6

React an acid with an alkali (hydroxides of Group I

metals and ammonia). The method involves TITRATION.

Place a measured quantity of acid in a conical flask.

Add three or four drops of a suitable indicator.
Place the alkali in a burette. Note the level of the liquid.
Add the alkali to the acid until the indicator just changes colour
Note the new level of liquid.
Repeat experiment with exactly the same volumes but no indicator.
Evaporate a small amount of the water in an evaporating basin and
let the solution cool to allow crystals to form.

MAKING SALTS BY TITRATION

This method is limited to the soluble salts of ammonia or alkali metals
e.g.
ammonium chloride
NH4Cl
sodium chloride
NaCl
potassium sulphate
K2SO4
sodium nitrate
NaNO3
Method
1
2
3
4
5
6

React an acid with an alkali (hydroxides of Group I

metals and ammonia). The method involves TITRATION.

Place a measured quantity of acid in a conical flask.

Add three or four drops of a suitable indicator.
Place the alkali in a burette. Note the level of the liquid.
Add the alkali to the acid until the indicator just changes colour
Note the new level of liquid.
Repeat experiment with exactly the same volumes but no indicator.
Evaporate a small amount of the water in an evaporating basin and
let the solution cool to allow crystals to form.

MAKING SALTS BY TITRATION

This method is limited to the soluble salts of ammonia or alkali metals
e.g.
ammonium chloride
NH4Cl
sodium chloride
NaCl
potassium sulphate
K2SO4
sodium nitrate
NaNO3
Method
1
2
3
4
5
6

React an acid with an alkali (hydroxides of Group I

metals and ammonia). The method involves TITRATION.

Place a measured quantity of acid in a conical flask.

Add three or four drops of a suitable indicator.
Place the alkali in a burette. Note the level of the liquid.
Add the alkali to the acid until the indicator just changes colour
Note the new level of liquid.
Repeat experiment with exactly the same volumes but no indicator.
Evaporate a small amount of the water in an evaporating basin and
let the solution cool to allow crystals to form.

MAKING SALTS BY TITRATION

Example word equations:sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid

>

sodium chloride + water

sodium hydroxide + sulphuric acid

>

sodium sulphate

potassium hydroxide

nitric acid

>

potassium nitrate + water

ammonium hydroxide

nitric acid

>

ammonium nitrate + water

+ water

MAKING SALTS BY TITRATION

Example word equations:sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid

>

sodium chloride + water

sodium hydroxide + sulphuric acid

>

sodium sulphate

potassium hydroxide

nitric acid

>

potassium nitrate + water

ammonium hydroxide

nitric acid

>

ammonium nitrate + water

Now complete these:-

+ water

MAKING SALTS BY TITRATION

Example word equations:sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid

>

sodium chloride + water

sodium hydroxide + sulphuric acid

>

sodium sulphate

potassium hydroxide

nitric acid

>

potassium nitrate + water

ammonium hydroxide

nitric acid

>

ammonium nitrate + water

+ water

Now complete these:potassium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid > potassium chloride + water

MAKING SALTS BY TITRATION

Example word equations:sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid

>

sodium chloride + water

sodium hydroxide + sulphuric acid

>

sodium sulphate

potassium hydroxide

nitric acid

>

potassium nitrate + water

ammonium hydroxide

nitric acid

>

ammonium nitrate + water

+ water

Now complete these:potassium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid > potassium chloride + water
sodium hydroxide

nitric acid

> sodium nitrate + water

MAKING SALTS BY TITRATION

Example word equations:sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid

>

sodium chloride + water

sodium hydroxide + sulphuric acid

>

sodium sulphate

potassium hydroxide

nitric acid

>

potassium nitrate + water

ammonium hydroxide

nitric acid

>

ammonium nitrate + water

+ water

Now complete these:potassium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid > potassium chloride + water
sodium hydroxide

nitric acid

> sodium nitrate + water

ammonium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid > ammonium chloride + water

MAKING SALTS BY TITRATION

Example word equations:sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid

>

sodium chloride + water

sodium hydroxide + sulphuric acid

>

sodium sulphate

potassium hydroxide

nitric acid

>

potassium nitrate + water

ammonium hydroxide

nitric acid

>

ammonium nitrate + water

+ water

Now complete these:potassium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid > potassium chloride + water
sodium hydroxide

nitric acid

> sodium nitrate + water

ammonium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid > ammonium chloride + water

NEUTRALISATION - IONIC EQUATION

In all alkali acid reactions, the same ionic reaction takes place

NEUTRALISATION - IONIC EQUATION

In all alkali acid reactions, the same ionic reaction takes place
sodium hydroxide + dil. nitric acid
NaOH(aq)
+
HNO3 (aq)

>
>

sodium nitrate + water

NaNO3 (aq)
+ H2O (l)

NEUTRALISATION - IONIC EQUATION

In all alkali acid reactions, the same ionic reaction takes place
sodium hydroxide + dil. nitric acid
NaOH(aq)
+
HNO3 (aq)

>
>

sodium nitrate + water

NaNO3 (aq)
+ H2O (l)

Na+(aq) + OH(aq) + H+(aq) + NO3(aq) > Na+(aq) + NO3(aq) + H2O(l)

NEUTRALISATION - IONIC EQUATION

In all alkali acid reactions, the same ionic reaction takes place
sodium hydroxide + dil. nitric acid
NaOH(aq)
+
HNO3 (aq)

>
>

sodium nitrate + water

NaNO3 (aq)
+ H2O (l)

Na+(aq) + OH(aq) + H+(aq) + NO3(aq) > Na+(aq) + NO3(aq) + H2O(l)

cancel ions

H+(aq) +

from
acid

OH(aq) >

from
alkali

H2O(l)

MAKING SALTS - POSSIBILITIES

IS THE SALT SOLUBLE
OR INSOLUBLE?

MIX SOLUTIONS OF
TWO SUITABLE SALTS
TO PRECIPITATE THE
INSOLUBLE SALT

INSOLUBLE

FILTER OFF
THE SALT

SOLUBLE

DOES THE METAL

REACT WITH DILUTE
ACIDS?

NO

IS THE METAL OXIDE

OR CARBONATE
SOLUBLE IN WATER?

YES

IS IT
SAFE?

NO
NO
YES

YES

ADD EXCESS METAL

TO THE ACID THEN
FILTER OFF THE
EXCESS METAL

ADD EXCESS METAL

OXIDE OR METAL
CARBONATE TO ACID
THEN FILTER OFF THE
EXCESS SOLID

TITRATE THE METAL

HYDROXIDE WITH
ACID

CRYSTALLISE
THE SALT
FROM THE
FILTRATE

PREPARATION OF INSOLUBLE SALTS

PREPARATION OF INSOLUBLE SALTS

METHOD Insoluble salts can be made by mixing appropriate
solutions of ions so that a precipitate is formed.

PREPARATION OF INSOLUBLE SALTS

METHOD Insoluble salts can be made by mixing appropriate
solutions of ions so that a precipitate is formed.
EXAMPLES

silver chloride
silver nitrate and sodium chloride
barium sulphate
barium chloride and sodium sulphate
lead iodide
lead nitrate and potassium iodide

PREPARATION OF INSOLUBLE SALTS

METHOD Insoluble salts can be made by mixing appropriate
solutions of ions so that a precipitate is formed.
PREPARATION OF SILVER CHLORIDE
To make silver chloride you need
(i) a soluble silver salt silver nitrate
plus
(ii) a soluble chloride sodium chloride.

PREPARATION OF INSOLUBLE SALTS

METHOD Insoluble salts can be made by mixing appropriate
solutions of ions so that a precipitate is formed.
PREPARATION OF SILVER CHLORIDE
To make silver chloride you need
(i) a soluble silver salt silver nitrate
plus
(ii) a soluble chloride sodium chloride.

Prepare a solution of sodium chloride.

PREPARATION OF INSOLUBLE SALTS

METHOD Insoluble salts can be made by mixing appropriate
solutions of ions so that a precipitate is formed.
PREPARATION OF SILVER CHLORIDE
To make silver chloride you need
(i) a soluble silver salt silver nitrate
plus
(ii) a soluble chloride sodium chloride.

The sodium chloride lattice breaks up and dissolves in the water.

PREPARATION OF INSOLUBLE SALTS

METHOD Insoluble salts can be made by mixing appropriate
solutions of ions so that a precipitate is formed.
PREPARATION OF SILVER CHLORIDE
To make silver chloride you need
(i) a soluble silver salt silver nitrate
plus
(ii) a soluble chloride sodium chloride.

Prepare a solution of silver nitrate.

PREPARATION OF INSOLUBLE SALTS

METHOD Insoluble salts can be made by mixing appropriate
solutions of ions so that a precipitate is formed.
PREPARATION OF SILVER CHLORIDE
To make silver chloride you need
(i) a soluble silver salt silver nitrate
plus
(ii) a soluble chloride sodium chloride.

The silver nitrate lattice breaks up and dissolves in the water.

PREPARATION OF INSOLUBLE SALTS

METHOD Insoluble salts can be made by mixing appropriate
solutions of ions so that a precipitate is formed.
PREPARATION OF SILVER CHLORIDE
To make silver chloride you need
(i) a soluble silver salt silver nitrate
plus
(ii) a soluble chloride sodium chloride.

Mix the two solutions.

PREPARATION OF INSOLUBLE SALTS

METHOD Insoluble salts can be made by mixing appropriate
solutions of ions so that a precipitate is formed.
PREPARATION OF SILVER CHLORIDE
To make silver chloride you need
(i) a soluble silver salt silver nitrate
plus
(ii) a soluble chloride sodium chloride.

All four ions are now mixed together.

PREPARATION OF INSOLUBLE SALTS

METHOD Insoluble salts can be made by mixing appropriate
solutions of ions so that a precipitate is formed.
PREPARATION OF SILVER CHLORIDE
To make silver chloride you need
(i) a soluble silver salt silver nitrate
plus
(ii) a soluble chloride sodium chloride.

The silver ions and chloride ions come together and the
insoluble silver chloride forms a white precipitate.

PREPARATION OF INSOLUBLE SALTS

METHOD Insoluble salts can be made by mixing appropriate
solutions of ions so that a precipitate is formed.
PREPARATION OF SILVER CHLORIDE
To make silver chloride you need
(i) a soluble silver salt silver nitrate
plus
(ii) a soluble chloride sodium chloride.

Because sodium nitrate is soluble in water their ions remain in

solution. The precipitate is then filtered, washed and dried.

PREPARATION OF INSOLUBLE SALTS

METHOD Insoluble salts can be made by mixing appropriate
solutions of ions so that a precipitate is formed.
PREPARATION OF SILVER CHLORIDE
To make silver chloride you need
(i) a soluble silver salt silver nitrate
plus
(ii) a soluble chloride sodium chloride.

SALTS - QUESTIONS

SALTS - QUESTIONS
1. Work out what you get if the following chemicals are mixed.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)

zinc and sulphuric acid

copper carbonate and nitric acid
sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid
lead oxide and nitric acid
magnesium and hydrochloric acid
ammonium hydroxide and sulphuric acid
magnesium carbonate and sulphuric acid

SALTS - QUESTIONS
1. Work out what you get if the following chemicals are mixed.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)

zinc and sulphuric acid

zinc sulphate + hydrogen
copper carbonate and nitric acid
copper nitrate + carbon dioxide + water
sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid
sodium chloride + water
lead oxide and nitric acid
lead nitrate + water
magnesium and hydrochloric acid
magnesium chloride + hydrogen
ammonium hydroxide and sulphuric acid
ammonium sulphate + water
magnesium carbonate and sulphuric acid magnesium + carbon + water
sulphate
dioxide

SALTS - QUESTIONS
1. Work out what you get if the following chemicals are mixed.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)

zinc and sulphuric acid

zinc sulphate + hydrogen
copper carbonate and nitric acid
copper nitrate + carbon dioxide + water
sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid
sodium chloride + water
lead oxide and nitric acid
lead nitrate + water
magnesium and hydrochloric acid
magnesium chloride + hydrogen
ammonium hydroxide and sulphuric acid
ammonium sulphate + water
magnesium carbonate and sulphuric acid magnesium + carbon + water
sulphate
dioxide

2. Answer the following...

Which ion is found in (i) acidic solutions; H+(aq)

(ii) alkaline solutions?

What is formed when you mix these two ions together?

What name do we give to this type of reaction?
When making salts from metals, oxides and carbonates, how do you know
when all the acid is used up?
When making salts from soluble Group I hydroxides, what do
you use to check when all the acid is used up?

SALTS - QUESTIONS
1. Work out what you get if the following chemicals are mixed.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)

zinc and sulphuric acid

zinc sulphate + hydrogen
copper carbonate and nitric acid
copper nitrate + carbon dioxide + water
sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid
sodium chloride + water
lead oxide and nitric acid
lead nitrate + water
magnesium and hydrochloric acid
magnesium chloride + hydrogen
ammonium hydroxide and sulphuric acid
ammonium sulphate + water
magnesium carbonate and sulphuric acid magnesium + carbon + water
sulphate
dioxide

2. Answer the following...

Which ion is found in (i) acidic solutions; H+(aq)

(ii) alkaline solutions? OH(aq)

What is formed when you mix these two ions together?

What name do we give to this type of reaction?

WATER
NEUTRALISATION

When making salts from metals, oxides and carbonates, how do you know
when all the acid is used up?
WHEN THE SOLID NO LONGER DISSOLVES
When making salts from soluble Group I hydroxides, what do
you use to check when all the acid is used up?
AN INDICATOR

ACIDS, BASES
& SALTS
THE END