Malaysian Institute of Information

Technology
Universiti Kuala Lumpur

Learning outcomes
At the end of this topic, students should
be able to:

Understand all the three proof

techniques, such as direct prove, proof
by contradiction and proof by induction.

Apply suitable proof techniques to prove

statements/equations.

Topics Covered:
2.1 Direct Proof
2.2 Proof By Contradiction
2.3 Proof By Induction

2.1

DIRECT PROOF

Method:
To prove If P, then Q assume P is
true and deduce that Q must be true
as well.
Direct proof is the straight-forward way of
proving things/ statements.
Direct proofs are also called bottom up
proofs.

Example:
1.
The sum of any two even integers is even.
Proof:

Suppose x and y are even numbers.

By the definition of even number, x = 2a and

2b for some integer a and b.
Therefore

x + y = 2a + 2b = 2 (a + b).

Let k = a + b. Then, x + y = 2k where k is an

integer
** 2k satisfies the definition of being an even
number. Thus x + y is even and the statement
above is true.

y=

2.

The sum of any two rational numbers is rational.

Proof:

for

Suppose r and s are rational numbers.

c
a
By the definition of rational numbers, r =
and s =
d
b
some integer a, b, c and d with b 0 and d
0.

Therefore

r + s =a + c

b d
ad =
+ bc
bd

p
Let p = ad + bc and and q = bd. Then,
r +s=
q
and q are integer and q 0.

where p

p
**
satisfies the definition of being a rational number.
q

Thus r + s is rational and the above statement is true.

3.

If x and y are two odd numbers, then x + y is even

number.

Proof:

Suppose x and y are odd numbers.

By the definition of odd number, x = 2a+1 and

y = 2b+1 for some integers a and b.
By the definition of even number, x + y = 2r for some
integer r.
Therefore, x + y = (2a + 1) + (2b + 1) = 2 (a + b +
1).
Let r = a + b + 1. Then, x + y = 2r where r is an
integer.
**2r satisfies the definition of being an even number.
Thus x + y is even and the statement above is true.

2.1
Proof By
Contradiction

Method:
To prove If P, then Q assume Q is
false and deduce that P must be false
as well.

Steps:
Assume that the opposite (or negation) of Q
(what we wish to prove) is true.
Show that the logical consequences of the
assumption include a contradiction.
Conclude that the assumption must have been

1.
2.
3.

Example :
1.
There is no greatest integer.
Proof: Assume that n is the greatest
integer.

n.

Then n+1 is an integer but n+1 >

So n is not the greatest integer, which

is a contradiction.

10

2.

There is no integer that is both even and odd.

Proof: Assume that there is integer that is both

n even and odd.
By definition of even, n = 2a for some integer a.
By definition of odd, n = 2b + 1 for some integer b.
Consequently,
2a = 2b + 1
2a 2b = 1
ab=
Since a and b are integers, the difference a b
must also be an integer.
But a b = (not an integer number), which is a
contradiction.

11

4.

Show that 29 is a prime number.

Proof:

Assume that 29 is not a prime number.

29 = rs where r and s are not 1 and 29.

The list of number r or s must be less than 6. It is
because we probably get more than 29 if 6 is included.
So s or r must be equal to 2,3,4 or 5.
But it is false because 29 is not the answer for the
multiplication of r and s.
Therefore, our assumption must be false and
hence the original statement is true. That is
contradiction

12

5.

Prove that if n2 is an even integer so is n.

Proof: Let n2 is even.

Suppose that n is odd
There is an integer k such that n = 2k + 1.
So if n2 = (2k+1)2 = 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1
p = 2k2 + 2k where k is an integer.
So, n2 = 2p + 1 is odd and this contradicts the
assumption that n2 is even.
Hence, n must be an even.

13

6.
If x and y are two even numbers, their sum is always
even.
Proof:Let x and y be two even integers.
Suppose x + y is an odd number.
Therefore, by definition we have x + y = 2c + 1 for
some integers c.
Since x and y are even so x = 2a and y = 2b for
some integer a and b.
x + y = 2a + 2b = 2(a + b)
And on the other hand we have x + y = 2c + 1.
So
, which is a contradict with the
2( a + b ) 2c + 1
assumption.

14

2.3 Proof by induction

Induction

is the most powerful and commonly

used proof technique in computer sciences.

It

is useful when we want to prove a statement

that involves some natural-valued variable.
example :
n( n + 1)
the sum 1 + 2 + 3 + . + n is equal to
.
2

15

Mathematical Deduction
Assume

that when a domino is knocked over,

the next domino is knocked over by it
Show that if the first domino is knocked over,
then all the dominoes will be knocked over.

16

Steps:
1. Test the formula for the first allowable
value of n ( usually n = 1 ).
2.

Assume true for some value of n. say

k.

3.

Having made assumption in step 2,

show that the assumption is still true
for next value of n, that is n = k + 1.

17

Example:
By using the principle of mathematics
n n 1
induction, prove that 1 + 2 + 3 + + n =
2

Proof:

18

Example:
By using the principle of mathematics
induction, prove that.
1
1
1
1
n

.......

2n 1 2n 3 3 2n 3
3.5 5.7 7.9

Proof:

19

Example:
By using the principle of mathematics
induction, prove that.
n

Proof:

n
r r 1 r 2 n 1 n 2 n 3

4
r 1

20

Example:
2n2

P
n

2
4
Prove that
12 (for n>=1).
Proof:

is divisible by

21

Example :
Prove that T(n)=9n+3 is divisible by 4
(for n>=0).

22

Example:
5n

1 is divisible by 4, for each integer n

0
1

+ 6 + 11 + 16 + .+ (5n - 4) =

23

Websites:
1.http://www.abstractmath.org/MM/MMFormsProof.htm
(date accessed: 5th June 2009)
2.http://www.cs.iupui.edu/~ydai/Lec/Lec03.ppt#512,28,Mathema
tical Deduction
(date accessed: 5th June 2009)
3.

http://www.cs.dartmouth.edu/~ac/Teach/CS19-Winter06/Slides
AndNotes/lec12induction.pdf
(date accessed: 14th August 2009/ 23 Syaaban 1430H)

4.http://notes.ump.edu.my/fskkp/BCT1073%20(1BCN
%20sem0809)/CHAPTER%207%20PROOF
%20TECHNIQUES.ppt#362,32,Slide 32

(date accessed: 14th August 2009/ 23 Syaaban 1430H)

24