BEE3133

Electrical Power Systems

Chapter 6: System Protection

Rahmatul Hidayah Salimin

 Introduction
• System Protection: the equipment use
to detect and isolate the faulty section
from the system automatically.
 Introduction
• Short circuit occur when equipment
insulation fails due to system overvoltages
caused by:
– Lightning or switching surges
• Flashover line-line (caused by wind)
• Flashover to tree
– Insulation contamination by dirt/salt
– Mechanical failure
• Cable insulation failure
– Natural causes
• Tower/pole or conductor falls
• Objects fall on conductors
 Introduction
• Short circuit currents can be several orders
of magnitude larger than normal operating
currents
• If it is allowed to persist, may cause:
– Damage to the equipment due to heavy currents,
unbalanced current, or low voltage produces by
the short circuit
– Fire and explosion effect equipment/people
– Disruption of service in the entire power system
area
 Introduction
• Careful design, operation and
maintenance of system protection can
minimize the occurrence of short
circuit but cannot eliminate them.
Fault Currents and Voltages
Function of System Protection
• Cause the prompt removal from service of any
elements of power system when it suffers a short
circuit, or when it start to operate in any abnormal
manner that might cause damage or otherwise
interfere with the effective operation of the rest of
the system.
• Provide indication of the location and type of failure
so that the data can be used to assist in expediting
repair and analyzing the effectiveness of fault-
prevention and mitigation features.
Function of System Protection
• Why do we need system protection:
– Detect fault
– Isolate faulted component
– Restore faulted component
• Aims:
– Continued supply for rest of system
– Protect faulted part from damage
 Types of Protection
A – Fuses
• For LV Systems, Distribution Feeders and
Transformers, VT’s, Auxiliary Supplies
 
B - Over current and earth fault
• Widely used in All Power Systems
– Non-Directional
– Directional
  
 Types of Protection
C - Differential
• For Distribution Feeders, Busbars,
Transformers, Generators etc

High Impedance
Low Impedance
Restricted E/F
Biased
Pilot Wire
 Types of Protection
D - Distance
• For Transmission and Sub-transmission Lines
and Distribution Feeders,
• Also used as back-up protection for
transformers and generators without
signaling with signaling to provide unit
protection e.g.:
– Time-stepped distance protection
– Phase comparison for transmission lines
– Directional comparison for transmission lines
 
 Types of Protection
E - Miscellaneous:
• Under and over voltage
• Under and over frequency
• A special relay for generators, transformers, motors
etc.
• Control relays: auto-reclose, tap change control, etc.
• Tripping and auxiliary relays
Design Criteria/Characteristics

Economy

Simplicity
Speed

Reliability

Sensitivity
Selectivity
 Design Criteria/Characteristics
• Reliability
– Operate dependably and in healthy operating
condition when fault conditions occur, even after
remaining idle for months or years.
• Selectivity
– Clearly discriminate between normal and
abnormal system condition to avoid unnecessary,
false trips.
• Sensitivity
– Ability to distinguish the fault condition, although
the different between fault and normal condition
is small.
 Design Criteria/Characteristics
• Speed
– Fault at any point in the system must be
detected and isolated rapidly to minimize fault
duration and equipment damage. Any intentional
time delays should be precise.
• Economy
– Provide maximum protection at minimum cost
• Simplicity
– Minimize protection equipment and circuitry
 Economic Factor
• Total cost should take account of :
– Relays, schemes and associated panels and panel wiring
– Setting studies
– Commissioning
– CTs and VTs
– Maintenance and repairs to relays
– Damage repair if protection fails to operate
– Lost revenue if protection operates unnecessarily
 Economic Factor
• The cost of protection is equivalent to an insurance policy
against damage to plant, and loss of supply and customer
goodwill.
• Acceptable cost is based on a balance of economics and
technical factors. Cost of protection should be balanced
against the cost of potential hazards.
• There is an economic limit on what can be spent.
• MINIMUM COST :Must ensure that all faulty equipment is
isolated by protection.
Relationship between reliability of supply, its
value and cost to the consumer
 System Protection Components
• Transducer / Instrument Transformer
• Relay
• Circuit Breaker
 System Protection Components
Function:
• Transducers/Instrument Transformers
– Provide low current and voltage, standardized levels suitable for
the relays operation.
• Relays
– Discriminate between normal operating and fault conditions.
– When current exceed a specified value relay will be operated and
cause the trip coil of CB to be energized/open their contact.
• Circuit Breakers
– Open the line
System Protection Components
System Protection Components
 System Protection Flow
voltage or current rise from normal condition

voltage/current is reduced to match with relay rating

activate circuit breaker

circuit isolation

Fault Circuit Fault

Transducer Relay
Occur Breaker Clear
 Zones of Protection
• For fault anyway within the zone, the
protection system responsible to
isolate everything within the zone from
the rest of the system.
• Isolation done by CB
• Must isolate only the faulty equipment
or section
 Zones of Protection
• Zones are defined for:
– Generators
– Transformers
– Buses
– Transmission and distribution lines
– Motors
Zones of Protection
 Zones of Protection
• Characteristics:
– Zones are overlapped.
– Circuit breakers are located in the overlap
regions.
– For a fault anywhere in a zone, all circuit
breakers in that zone open to isolate the
fault.
 Overlapped of Protection
• No blind spot:
– Neighboring zones are overlapped to avoid
the possibility of unprotected areas
• Use overlapping CTs:
– Isolation done by CB. Thus, it must be
inserted in each overlap region to identify
the boundary of protective zones.
 Overlapped of Protection
• Overlap accomplish by having 2 sets of
instrument transformers and relays for each
CB.
• Achieved by the arrangement of CT and CB.
Primary & Back-up Protection
• Primary protection is the protection
provided by each zone to its elements.
• However, some component of a zone
protection scheme fail to operate.
• Back-up protection is provided which
take over only in the event of primary
protection failure.
 Example
a) Consider the power system shown below, with the
generating source beyond buses 1, 3 and 4. What
are the zones of protection in which the system
should be divided? Which circuit breakers will open
for faults at P1 and P2?
1 3

A P1 2 C P2

B
4
 1 3
D

A P1 2 C P2

Fault at P1 = A, B, C
Fault at P2 = A, B, C,D, E
 Example
a) If three circuits breakers are added at the tap
point 2, how would the zones of protection be
modified? Which circuit breakers will operate for
fault at P1 and P2 under these conditions?
1 3

A P1 2 C P2

B
4
1 3
2
D

A P1 F G C P2

Fault at P1 = A, F
Fault at P2 = C,D,E,G
 Zone Discrimination

• A system as shown with relays and breakers marked.

A single fault has resulted in the operation of
breakers B1, B2, B3 and B4.Identify the location of the
fault
• Answer:
– Fault in the overlap zone at breaker B2 as shown
 Back-up Protection
1.Duplicate Primary
• Provide primary protection when the primary-
relaying equipment is out of service for maintenance
or repair
• Disconnect when primary relaying operates correctly
• Operate with sufficient time delay (coordination
time delay) if primary not operate
• When short circuit occur, both primary and back-up
start to operate, but if primary is operate, then the
back-up will reset.
 Back-up Protection
2.Remote Back-up
• located outside boundary of Zone of Protection
 Example

Fault Primary Back-up

K C, D, E A, B, F
 Example

Fault Primary Back-up

Line E, F C, D, E, F, G, H A, B, I, J
 Transducers
• Also known as Instrument Transformer
• Use to reduce abnormal current & voltage
levels and transmit input signals to the
relays of a protection system.
• Why do we need transducer:
– The lower level input to the relays ensures that
the physical hardware used to construct the
relays will be small & cheap
– The personnel who work with the relays will be
working in a safe environment.
 Transducers
• Current and Voltage Transformers
– Correct connection of CTs and VTs to the
protection is important directional,
distance, phase comparison and
differential protections.
– Earth CT and VT circuits at one point only;
VT and CT Schematic
 Voltage Transformers
• VT is considered to be sufficiently accurate.
• It is generally modeled as an ideal transformer.
• VT secondary connected to voltage-sensing
device with infinite impedance.
 Voltage Transformers
• Types of VTs
– Electromagnetic VT
– Capacitive VT
• Busbar VTs
– Special consideration needed when used for line protection
• LV application(12 kV or lower)
– Industry standard – transformer with a primary winding at a
system voltage and secondary winding at 67 V(line-to-neutral) and
116 V(line-to-line).
Voltage Transformers
 Voltage Transformers

Voltage/Potential
Transformer
(VT/PT)
Voltage Transformers
Voltage Transformers
 Voltage Transformers
HV and EHV
• Capacitor-coupled VT (CVT)
– C1 & C2 are adjusted, so that a few kVs of
voltage is obtains across C2
– Then, stepped down by T
• VTs must be fused or protected by MCB.
Voltage Transformers
 Voltage Transformers
• VT ratios:
– ratio of the high voltage/secondary
voltage
1:1 2:1 2.5:1 4:1
5:1 20:1 40:1 60:1
80:1 100:1 200:1 300:1
400:1 600:1 800:1 1000:1
2000:1 3000:1 4500:1
 Current Transformers
• CT is an instrument transformer that is used
to supply a reduced value of current to
meters, protective relays, and other
instruments.
• The primary winding consist of a single turn
which is the power conductor itself.
• CT secondary is connected to a current-
sensing device with zero impedance.
 Current Transformers
• CTs ratio(secondary current rating is 5A)
50:5 100:5 150:5 200:5
250:5 300:5 400:5 450:5
500:5 600:5 800:5 900:5
1000:5 1200:5
• CTs also available with the secondary rating
of 1A
Current Transformers
Current Transformers
 Reclosers and Fuses
• Automatic reclosers are commonly used for
distribution circuit protection.
• Recloser: self-controlled device for automatically
interrupting and reclosing an AC circuit with preset
sequence of openings and reclosures
• Have built-in control to clear temporary faults and
restores service with momentary outages.
• Disadvantages:
– increase hazard when circuit is physically contacted by
people.
– Recloser should be locked out during live-line maintenance.
 Reclosers and Fuses
1. An upstream fuse/relay
has detected a fault
2. Downstream system
isolated by fuse or
breaker
3. Automatic re-closing
after delay successful if
fault not permanent
 Relays
• Discriminate between normal operating
and fault conditions.
• Type of Relays
– Magnitude Relay
– Directional Relay
– Distance/Ratio Relay
– Differential Relay
– Pilot Relay
 Magnitude Relays
• Also called as Overcurrent Relay
• Response to the magnitude of input quantities ie.
current.
• Energize CB trip coil when the fault current magnitude
exceeds a predetermined value or trips when a current
rises above a set point (pick-up current).
• If it is less than the set point value, the relay remains
open, blocking the trip coil.
• Time-delay Overcurrent Relay also have the same
operating method but with an intentional time-delay.
 Directional Relays
• Responds to fault only in one direction, either to the
left or to the right of its location
• Operation depends upon the direction (lead or lag) of
the fault current with respect to a reference voltage.
• The directional element of these relays checks the
phase angle between the current and voltage of one
phase, and allows the overcurrent unit to operate if
this phase angle indicates current in the reverse
direction.
 Ratio Relays
• Operate for certain relations between the
magnitudes of voltage, current and the phase angle
between them.
• Measures the distance between the relay location
and the point of fault, in term of impedance,
reactance and admittance.
• Respond to the ratio of two phasor quantities as
example Voltage and Current (Z = V/R)
• Also called impedance or distance relay
 Differential Relays
• Respond to the vector difference between two currents within
the zone protection determined by the location of CTs.
• Not suitable for transmission-line protection because the
terminals of a line are separated by too great a distance to
interconnect the CT secondaries.
• For the protection of generators, transformers, buses,
• Most differential-relay applications are of the ‘current-
differential’ type.
 Differential Relays
Relay

• Fault occur at X
• Suppose that current flows through the primary circuit either to
a load or to a short circuit located at X.
• If the two current transformers have the same ratio, and are
properly connected, their secondary currents will merely
circulate between the two CTs as shown by the arrows, and no
current will flow through the differential relay.
 Differential Relays
Relay

• A flow on one side only, or even some current

flowing out of one side while a larger current
enters the other side, will cause a differential
current.
• In other words, the differential-relay current
will be proportional to the vector difference
between the currents entering and leaving the
protected circuit; and, if the differential
current exceeds the relay’s pickup value, the
relay
 Differential Relays
Relay

• When a short circuit develop anywhere between

the two CTs.
• If current flows to the short circuit from both
sides as shown, the sum of the CT secondary
currents will flow through the differential relay.
• It is not necessary that short-circuit current
flow to the fault from both sides to cause
secondary current to flow through the
differential relay.
 Pilot Relays
• The term ‘pilot’ means that between the
ends of the transmission line there is an
interconnecting channel of some sort over
which information can be conveyed.
• Use communicated information from
remote sites as input signals.
 Pilot Relays
• Transmitting fault signals from a remote zone
boundary to relays at the terminals of a long
TL
• Pilot relaying provides primary protection only;
back-up protection must be provided by
supplementary relaying.
• Type : wire pilot, carrier-current pilot and
microwave pilot.
 Pilot Relays
1 2

A B C

ZA
ZB

• Station 1 consist of meter for reading

voltage, current and power factor.
• Distance relay, tell the different between
fault at A (middle) and B (end) by knowing
the impedance characteristic per unit length
of the line.
 Pilot Relays
1 2

A B C

• Could not possibly distinguish between fault B

and C because impedance would be so small-
Mistake in tripping CB for fault B or C
• Solution- indication from station B, when the
phase angle of the current at S-B(with respect
to current A) is different by approximately 180o
from it value for fault in the line section AB.
 Pilot Relays
1 2
A B C

(with respect to current A) is

different by approximately 180o
from it value for fault in the line
section

(with respect to current A) is

not different in degree from it
value for fault in the line
section