Research Problem

Statement
Construct, Concept and
Variables

Research Process
The research process:
Characteristics of research:
Proprietary vs. scholarly research
Research is based on curiosity and asking questions (creativity)
Research is a systematic process
Research is potentially replicable
Conceptualization, planning and designing research, methodologies
for conducting research, analyzing and interpreting data,
reconceptualization
Research is reflexive and self critical
Research is cumulative and self-corrective
Research is cyclical
Research paradigms:
Physical sciences
Humanities
Social sciences

Assumption
Ontological assumption
Epistemological
assumption

Axiological assumption

Methodological
assumption

Rhetorical assumption

Question
What is the nature of
reality
What is the relationship
of the researcher to that
being researched

Positivist paradigm
Singular
Objective
Independent

Naturalistic paradigm
Multiple
Intersubjective
Interdependent

What is the role of

values in the research
process
What is the process of
research

Value-free
Unbiased

Value-laden
Biased

Deduction
Search for cause and
effect relationships
between variables
Static design
Researcher-controlled
setting
Quantitative methods
Context-free
generalizations
Goals of explanation,
prediction and control

Induction
Holistic understanding
of patterns of behavior
Emergent behavior
Natural setting
Qualitative methods
Context-bound findings
Goals of understanding
and social change

What is the language of Formal

research reports?
Impersonal voice

Informal
Personal voice

Concept
An abstraction encompassing observed
events; a word that represents the similarities
or common aspects of objects or events that
are otherwise quite different from one another.
The purpose of a concept is to simplify thinking
by including a number of events (or the
common aspects of otherwise diverse things)
under one general heading (Ary 1985).
Chair, dog, tree, liquid, a doughnut, etc

Construct
Constructs are the highest highest-level abstractions of
complicated objects and events, created by combining
concepts and less complex constructs. used to account
for observed regularities and relationships, and to
summarize observations and explanations (Ary 1985).
A concept with added meaning of having been deliberately
and con consciously invented or seriously adopted for a
special scientific purpose.
1) it enters into theoretical schemes and is theoretical related
in various ways to other constructs.
2) it is defined and specified so that it may be observed or
measured (Kerlinger 1986).

Construct
Scientists measure things in three classes: direct
observables, indirect observables (not experienced
or observed first hand), and constructs.
These constructs are defined as constructs
theoretical creations based on observations but
cannot be observed directly or observed indirectly
(Kaplan 1964).
Motivation, visual acuity, justice, problem solving
ability, not a doughnut, but hunger. problem-

Operational Definition
It describes meaning to a concept or construct by
specifying the operations that must be performed in
order to measure or manipulate the concept, as the
data collected during research is in terms of observable
events (Ary 1985).
It defines or gives meaning to a variable by spelling out
what the investigator must do to measure it (Kerlinger
1986).
Operational definitions are essential to research
because they permit investigators to measure abstract
concepts and constructs and permit scientists to permit
move from the level of constructs and theory to the
level of observation (Ary 1985).

Operational Definition
Two Types of Operational Definitions:
Measured Operational Definition:
Operations by which investigators may
measure a concept.
Experimental Operational Definition:
Steps taken by a researcher to produce
certain experimental conditions.

Operational Definition
Examples of an Operational Definition:
Measured Operational Definition: An actual
(score) value from a test or questionnaire the
researchers would develop to measure hunger.
Experimental Operational Definition: A
manipulated scenario to produce the condition of
hunger. (such as preventing the subject from
consuming anything for x number of hours) x-

Variable
Characteristics or attributes of an object,
individual or organization that can be measured
or observed, and that varies among those
objects or individuals being studied (Creswell
2002).
They possess values and levels (the dimensions
on which they vary) (Sommery 1997).
The concepts that are of interest in a study
become the variable variables for s
investigation (Ary 1985).

Different Kinds of Variables

Dichotomous: Two valued variables.
Example: Sex (male/female) Two Polytomous: Multiple values for
variables. Example: Religion
(Catholicism, Islam, Judaism,
Hinduism, Buddhism, etc)
Continuous: A variable that takes on
an infinite number of values within a
range. Example: Height & Weight

More Kinds of Variables

Independent: The variable manipulated by the
experimenter (also: Experimental, Predictor,
Manipulated, Antecedent, Treatment).
Active: Any variable that is manipulated by the researcher
Attribute: Any variable that cannot be manipulated by the
researcher. For example, all human characteristics are
attribute variables: intelligence, sex, socioeconomic status
etc.
Dependent: The dependent variable is the
phenomenon that is the object of study and
investigation (also: Outcome, Response, Criterion,
Effect). - -

More Kinds of Variables

Categorical: Referred to as nominal
measurements. One creates categories,
and classifies all variables that fall under
this definition without rank order. All
variables under the same category are
considered of equal value, and not
differentiated.
Latent: An unobserved entity that stands
between the independent variable and the
dependent variable, and mediates the effect
of the independent variable on the
dependent variable. It is dependent on the
independent variable as well as other

More Kinds of Variables

Control: An independent variable that is measured in
a study because the y potentially influence the
dependent variable. It is a more clearly defined
independent variable in attempts to eliminate all
bias in regard s to its effects on the dependent
variable. (Keeps the study in check). they clearly
regards
Confounding: Variables not actually measured or
observed in a study, yet they exist, and its influence
cannot be directly detected or understood in a study.
One becomes aware of a confounding variable at the
end of a study, they realize that there is an effect
that was not measured or accounted for, but should
be addressed.

Concepts, Construct and

Variables
Concepts (Oxford definition) general
notation, abstract ideas.
Construct (Oxford definition) make by
fitting together; build; thing constructed;
especially by the mind.
Variables (Oxford definition) a situation,
number or quantity that can vary or be
varied
Constant (Oxford definition) a number or
quantity that does not vary

Concepts, Construct
Concepts are abstract ideas which have been
"defined" according to particular characteristics
or generalizations (constructs) about them.
A construct is based on concepts, or can be
thought of as a conceptual model that has
measurable aspects.
This will allow the researcher to "measure" the
concept and have a common acceptable
platform when other researches do a similar
research.

Concepts, Construct
E.g
Measuring advertising effectiveness
is an construct, and concepts related
would be brand awareness and
consumer behavior.
Pain is a concept, a theoretical model
of pain would be a construct, and a
pain assessment tool would give a
measurable variable.

Concepts, Construct
An idea is a plan, suggestion, or
possible course of action.
ex...I really like the idea of helping
people.
A concept is an idea or abstract
principle.
ex....She added that the concept of
arranged marriages is misunderstood
in the West.

 Science uses:
i. Concepts
ii. Links concepts by propositions
iii. Testing theory with observable evidence
iv. Publication of definitions and procedures
v. Control of alternative explanations
vi. Unbiased selection of evidence
vii. Reconciliation between theory and
observation

Concepts, Construct
A concept is a verbal abstraction drawn from
observation of a number of specific cases
A theoretical definition explains what is
meant by the concept.
Operational definitions translate the verbal
concepts into corresponding variables which
can be measured. Operational definitions can
be either: measured, or experimental.
Also, a variable can be either measured (e.g.,
surveys) or manipulated (e.g., experiment).

Concepts, Construct
A construct serves the same function as a
concept, but it is more abstract.
It is not characterized by a direct link between
the abstraction and its observed manifestations.
For instance, source credibility is a construct
which has been used in studying persuasion.
This term can be used in the same way as a
concept, but we should recognize that we cannot
directly observe different levels of source
credibility in individuals.
However, we can observe the various parts which
make up the construct individually, and then
combine them to get some overall summary.

Concepts, Construct
Constructs are built from the logical combination
of a number of more observable concepts. In the
case of source credibility, we could define the
construct as the combination of the concepts of
expertise, objectivity, and status.
Each of these concepts can be more directly
observed in an individual.
We might also consider some of these terms to
be constructs themselves, and break them down
into combinations of still more concrete concepts

What we see if we do this is a set of constructs at decreasing levels

of
abstraction. Only at the bottom of this hierarchy are directly

Concepts, Construct
A scientific concept really consists of three
parts: a label, a theoretical definition, and an
operational definition.
The theoretical definition specifies the verbal
meaning which is attached to the concept label.
We call self-defining concepts like age
primitive terms.
Primitive terms are adequately defined by their
attached concept labels.
These are the labels which appear at the
bottom of the level of abstraction hierarchy.
RECOMMENDATION: explicitly specify the
meaning associated with each concept,

Concepts, Construct
An operational definition translates the verbal
meaning provided by the theoretical definition
into a prescription for measurement.
Although they may be expressed verbally,
operational definitions are fundamentally
statements that describe measurement and
mathematical operations.
An operational definition describes the unit of
measurement. Examples of units of measurement
are minutes (to measure time), word counts (to
measure newspaper coverage of a particular
event), percent correct responses, etc.

 An operational definition adds three

things to the theoretical definition.
Operationalization is to take a fuzzy
concept, such as 'helping behavior',
and try to measure it by specific
observations, e.g. how likely are
people to help a stranger with
problems.

Concepts, Construct
An operational definition specifies the
level of measurement.
Levels of measurement can range from
the simple nominal variables which only
make distinctions between categories like
present or absent or yes or no; to
ordinal variables which contain some
information about the quantity (more or
less) of the concept present, but have no
real measurement scales; to continuous
variables which have real scale points
which are equally spaced, and which can

Concepts, Construct
The operational definition must be very closely
associated with the theoretical definition.
It must state clearly how observations will be made
so they will reflect as fully as possible the meaning
associated with the verbal concept or construct.
The operational definition must tell us how to
observe and quantify the concept in the real
world.
This connection between theoretical and operational
definitions is quite critical.
This connection establishes the validity of the
measurement.
The amount of validity in measurement is
proportional to the extent to which we actually

Relationships between
variables/concepts
Null relationships
Covariance relationships:
In a covariance relationship, changes in the values of
one variable (the measured concept) are associated
with changes in the values of the other variable.
That is, the variables shift values simultaneously, or
covary.
This does not mean that one concept is the cause and
the other is the effect.
A cause-effect relationship between concepts requires
more than just covariance, as well see shortly.
A covariance relationship is typically diagramed with
a curved, double-headed arrow between the concept

Relationships between
variables/concepts
Two variables which are related proportionally can
covary either positively or negatively.
While covariance relationships can provide prediction,
they cant provide explanation of the relationship.
Spurious relationships (artifacts): two variables may
covary because they are both the effects of a common
cause. The unobserved, but real, causal variable
sometimes is called a confounding variable, since it
may mislead us by producing the appearance of a
relationship between the observed variables.
Control variables

Relationships between
variables/concepts
Causal relationships:
Causality means that a change which occurs in one
variable (the cause) brings about a change in
another variable (the effect).
Alternative terms for cause and effect variable are
independent variable and dependent variable.
This terminology is based on the logic that in a
causal relationship the state of one variable (the
effect) depends on the state of the other (the
cause).
The state of the cause is independent of the state
of the effect variable.

Relationships between
variables/concepts
There is a critical difference between
covariance and causality:
Covariance means that a change in
one variable is associated with a
change in the other variable; causality
requires that a change in one variable
creates the change in the other.
In other words, covariance alone does
not imply causality.

Relationships between
variables/concepts
Covariance is only one of four conditions which
must be met before we can state that a
relationship is causal:

Spatial contiguity
Covariance (necessary but not sufficient condition)
Temporal ordering
Necessary connection (This necessary connection is a
statement which specifies why the cause can bring
about a change in the effect. It is the logical statement
of the process or mechanism by which the two
variables are related to one another in a cause-effect
relationship.

SOME DEFINITIONS OF
CONSTRUCTS
PERMISSIVENESS:
Oxford def. a) tolerant; liberal; b) giving permission
Experimental def. Extending the boundaries of acceptable
findings.
Measured def. Confining the boundaries of acceptable findings.
REINFORCEMENT:
Oxford def. Strengthen or support, especially with additional
personnel, material etc.
Experimental def. To build credibility by strengthening your
research findings.
Measured def. To build structural credibility to strengthen your
research findings.
READING ABILITY:
Oxford def. none
Experimental def. To understand through written text the
research findings.

SOME DEFINITIONS OF
CONSTRUCTS
ACHIEVEMENT:
Oxford def. a) something achieved b) act of achieving achieve: a) attain by
effort acquire; gain earn b) accomplish
Experimental def. To accomplish what you have set out to prove.
Measured def. To put your research findings into a written format to be used as
documentation.
INTERESTS:
Oxford def. a) curiosity, concern b) quality existing curiosity c) note worthiness,
importance 2) subject, hobby in which one is concerned 3) advantage or profit
4) self interest, excite the curiosity or attention to take a personal interest.
Experimental def. An educational topic that concerns you and is worthy of your
research.
Measured def. same as above
NEEDS:
Oxford def. archaic of necessity, requirement
Experimental def. The requirements of research in order for it to be valid.
Measured def. The requirements for charting the research findings in order to
give documented support.

SOME DEFINITIONS OF
CONSTRUCTS
TRANSFER OF TRAINING:
Oxford def. none
Experimental def. To give another researcher the information needed
so that they can continue researching from where you left off.
Measured def. same as above
LEADERSHIP:
Oxford def. A person that leads or is followed by others.
Experimental def. A person who has the ability to direct others
through a research experiment, and who will set the tone of the
research.
Measured def. A person who will design the way in which the
research findings will be documented.
CLASS ATMOSPHERE:
Oxford def. none
Experimental def. The tone of a class setting that will allow for similar
testing conditions.
Measured def. same as above

SOME DEFINITIONS OF
CONSTRUCTS
DELINQUENCY:
Oxford def. Failing in ones duty
Experimental def. Failing to plan out the way you are going
to conduct you research so that your findings are valid.
Measured def. Failing to document your findings in a way
that another researcher can duplicate your research findings.
ORGANIZATIONAL CONFLICT:
Oxford def. none
Experimental def. Lack of agreement within a research
group.
Measured def. Lack of consistent findings and charting.
SELF-OTHER-ATTITUDE:
Oxford def. none
Experimental def. Ability to work together for the good of the
research
Measured def. same as above

SOME DEFINITIONS OF
CONSTRUCTS
CONFORMITY:
Oxford def. Accordance with established practice,
agreement
Experimental def. To follow a specific plan that has
already been established and agreement as a
research team to stick to a research method that
was agreed upon.
Measured def. To chart the research findings in a
way that would best support your findings and
based on a method that was used prior by another
research team when studying the same subject
area.

Variables
A variable is something that changes.
It changes according to different factors.
Some variables changes easily, like the
stock-exchange value, while other variables
are almost constant, like the name of
someone.
Researchers are often seeking to measure
variables.
The variable can be a number, a name or
anything where the value can change.

Variables
An example of a variable is temperature.
The temperature varies according to other variable
and factors.
You can measure different temperature inside and
outside.
If it is a sunny day, chances are that the temperature
will be higher than if it's cloudy.
Another thing that can make the temperature change
is whether something has been done to manipulate
the temperature, like lighting a fire in the chimney.

Variables
A variable is any entity that can
take on different values.
Anything that can vary can be
considered a variable.
For instance, age can be considered
a variable because age can take
different values for different people
or for the same person at different
times.

Variables
Variables are not always 'quantitative' or numerical.
The variable 'gender' consists of two text values:
'male' and 'female'.
We can, if it is useful, assign quantitative values
instead of (or in place of) the text values, but we
don't have to assign numbers in order for
something to be a variable.
It's also important to realize that variables aren't
only things that we measure in the traditional
sense.
For instance, in much social research and in
program evaluation, we consider the treatment or
program to be made up of one or more variables
(i.e., the 'cause' can be considered a variable).

Variables
Variables may have the following
characteristics:
Period: When it starts and stops.
Pattern: Daily, weekly, ad-hoc, etc.
Detail: Overview through to 'in depth'.
Latency: Time between measuring
dependent and independent variable
(some things take time to take effect).

Variables
In research, you typically define variables
according to what you're measuring.
The independent variable is the variable which
the researcher would like to measure (the
cause), while the dependent variable is the
effect (or assumed effect), dependent on the
independent variable.
These variables are often stated in experimental
research, in a hypothesis, e.g. "what is the
effect of personality on helping behavior?

Variables
In explorative research methodology, e.g. in some
qualitative research, the independent and the
dependent variables might not be identified beforehand.
They might not be stated because the researcher does
not have a clear idea yet on what is really going on.
The independent variable, also known as the
manipulated variable, lies at the heart of any
quantitative experimental design.
A researcher manipulates an independent variable, to
influence a dependent variable, or variables.
There may be more than two dependent variables in
any experiment.

Variables
The independent variable is what you
(or nature) manipulates -- a treatment or
program or cause.
The dependent variable is what is
affected by the independent variable -your effects or outcomes.
For example, if you are studying the effects
of a new educational program on student
achievement, the program is the
independent variable and your measures of
achievement are the dependent ones.

Variables
The independent variable (IV) is often thought
of as our input variable.
It is independent of everything that occurs
during the experiment because once it is
chosen it does not change.
In our experiment on college performance, we
chose two groups at the onset, namely, those
with work experience and those without.
This variable makes up our two independent
groups and is therefore called the independent
variable.

Variables
The dependent variable (DV), or outcome variable, is
dependent on our independent variable or what we start
with.
In this study, college grades would be our dependent
variable because it is dependent on work experience.
If we chose to also look at men versus women, or older
students versus younger students, then these variables
would be other independent variables and the outcome,
our dependent variable (college grades), would be
dependent on them as well.
Remember that whatever is the same between the two
groups is considered a constant because they do not vary
between groups but rather remain the same and therefore
do not affect the outcome of each group differently

Variables
Descriptive variables are those that which will be reported
on, without relating them to anything in particular.
Categorical variables result from a selection from
categories, such as 'agree' and 'disagree'. Nominal and
ordinal variables are categorical.
Numeric variables give a number, such as age.
Discrete variables are numeric variables that come from a
limited set of numbers. They may result from , answering
questions such as 'how many', 'how often', etc.
Continuous variables are numeric variables that can take
any value, such as weight.
Extraneous variables are additional variables which could
provide alternative explanations or cast doubt on
conclusions.

Variables
Researchers must be aware that variables
outside of the independent variable(s) may
confound or alter the results of a study.
Confounding variables are variables with a
significant effect on the dependent variable that
the researcher failed to control or eliminate sometimes because the researcher is not aware
of the effect of the confounding variable.
The key is to identify possible confounding
variables and somehow try to eliminate or
control them.

Variables
A confounding variable, also known as a third
variable or a mediator variable, can adversely
affect the relationship between the
independent variable and dependent variable.
This may cause the researcher to analyze the
results incorrectly.
The results may show a false correlation
between the dependent and independent
variables, leading to an incorrect rejection of
the null hypothesis.

Variables
If, for instance, we had two groups in the above
mentioned study but did not control for age then
age itself may be a confound. Imagine comparing
students with work experience with a mean age of
40 with students without work experience and a
mean age of 18.
Could we reasonably say that work experience
caused the student to receive higher grades?
This extraneous variable can play havoc on our
results as can any intervening variable such as
motivation or attention.
Addressing confounds before they alter the results
of your study is always a wise decision

Variables

Every Problem Needs Further

Delineation
To comprehend fully the meaning of the problem, the researcher
should eliminate any possibility of misunderstanding by

Stating the hypotheses and/or research questions:

Describing the specific hypotheses being tested or
questions being asked.
Delimiting the research: Fully disclosing what the
researcher intends to do and, conversely, does not intend
to do.
Defining the terms: Giving the meanings of all terms in the
statements of the problem and subproblems that have any
possibility of being misunderstood.
Stating the assumptions: Presenting a clear statement of
all assumptions on which the research will rest.
These matters facilitate understanding of the research called
the setting of the problem

Stating the Hypotheses and/or

Research Questions
Hypotheses are tentative, intelligent guesses
posited for the purpose of directing ones
thinking toward the solution of the problem
Necessary in searching for relevant data and
in establishing a tentative goal
Hypotheses are neither proved nor
disproved. They are nothing more than
tentative propositions set forth to assist in
guiding the investigation of a problem or to
provide possible explanations for the
observations made

Accept/Reject Hypotheses
Hypotheses have nothing to do with proof
Their acceptance or rejection is dependent
on what the data and the data alone
ultimately reveal
Hypotheses may originate in the subproblem,
could be 1 to 1
Hypothesis provides a position from which a
researcher begins to initiate an exploration of
problem and subproblems and checkpoints to
test the findings that the data reveal

Accept/Reject Hypotheses
If the data do not support the research
hypothesis, dont be disturbed it merely
means that the educated guess about the
outcome of the investigation was incorrect
Frequently, rejected hypotheses are a
source of genuine and gratifying surprise
truly made unexpected discovery
Another type of hypothesis is the null
hypothesis

Null Hypothesis
It is an indicator only
Reveals some influences, forces, or
factors that have resulted in a
statistical difference or no such
difference
Most researches stop at this point
getting off at mezzanine instead
down to the basement where the
foundations are

Null Hypothesis Dynamics

If null hypothesis shows the presence of
dynamics, then the next logical questions are as
follows:
What are these dynamics?
What is their nature?
How can they be isolated and studied?
For example, lets say that a team of social
workers believe that one type of after-school
programme for teenagers (well call it Programme
A) is more effective than another programme
(well call it Programme B) in terms of reducing
high school dropout rates.

Null Hypothesis Dynamics

The null hypothesis stating that there will be no
difference in the high school graduation rates of
teenagers enrolled in Programme A and those
enrolled in Programme B has been rejected
encouraging news it is mezzanine conclusion
What specifically were the factors within the
programme that cause the null hypothesis to be
rejected?
These are fundamental questions will uncover
facts that may lie very close to the discovery of
new substantive knowledge the purpose of all
research

Delimiting the Research

Know PRECISELY what the researcher intends to
DO and does NOT intend to do
What the researcher intends to do is stated in the
problem statement
What the researcher is not going to do is in the
delimitations
The researcher can easily be beguiled (deceived,
cheated) by discovering interesting information
that lies beyond the precincts of the problem
under investigation
Only a researcher who thinks carefully about the
problem and its focal centre can distinguish
between what is relevant and what is not relevant
to the problem

Defining The Terms

Without knowing explicitly what a term means, we
cannot evaluate the research or determine whether
the researcher has carried out what was proposed in
the problem statement
Need not necessarily agree with such a definition, but
as long as we know what the researcher means when
using the term, we are able to understand and
appraise it appropriately
A formal definition contains three parts: (a) the term
to be defined; (b) the genera, or the general class to
which the concept being defined belongs; and (c) the
differentia, the specific characteristics or traits that
distinguish the concept being defined from all other
members of the general classification

Defining The Terms

To make the software more USERFRIENDLY?
What is the relationship between the
user interface metric and user
acceptance?
The researcher must be careful to
avoid circular definitions, in which
the terms to be defined are used in
the definitions themselves
A classic example is Gertrude Steins
A rose, is a rose, is a rose

Stating the Assumptions

Assumptions are so basic that, without
them, the research problem itself could
not exist
Example, to determine by pretest-posttest
whether one method of instruction has
produced the results hypothesised
The assumptions are:
The test measures what it is presumed
to measure
The teacher(s) in the study can teach
effectively
The students are capable of learning the

Stating the Assumptions

Assumptions are what researchers take for
granted with respect to the problem
But taking everything for granted may
cause misunderstanding
If others know the assumptions a
researcher makes, they are better
prepared to evaluate the conclusions that
result from such assumptions
Many students thought that assumption is
stating the obvious
In research, try to leave nothing to chance
in the hope of preventing any

Stating the Assumptions

All assumptions that have a material
bearing on the problem should be
openly and unreservedly set forth.
Asking question What am I taking
for granted with respect to the
problem? will bring assumptions
into clear view

Importance of the Study

In dissertations or research reports, researchers
frequently set forth their reasons for undertaking
the study
In a research proposal, such a discussion may be
especially important
Some studies seem to go far beyond any
relationship to the practical world
Of such research efforts, one might asks Of what
use is it? What practical value does the study
have?
For example, the time, money, effort spent on
early space exploration flights