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Pathogens and disease

An infectious disease is a
disease resulting from infection
of a host organism by a
pathogen, a disease-causing
organism.
There are several different types
of pathogen including bacteria,
fungi, viruses and parasites.
Infectious disease is a major
cause of death worldwide.
It is estimated that 14.7
million people died in 2002
due to infectious diseases.
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Impact of infectious diseases

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Different types of pathogens

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Mechanisms of disease
Pathogens can cause disease in two main ways:

damaging cells for example,

malarial parasites cause disease
symptoms by bursting red blood cells.

producing toxins exotoxins are secreted by a living,

normal pathogen, whereas endotoxins are released
when the pathogen is damaged.

For example, the symptoms of cholera are caused by an

exotoxin secreted by the bacteria Vibrio cholerae. It
increases the secretion of chloride ions into the lumen of the
intestines, which can lead to severe diarrhoea.
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Disease transmission

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Factors affecting the spread of disease

Contributing factor(s)

Example infectious diseases

Human demographics
and behaviour
Economic development
and land use
Microbial adaptation
and change
Breakdown of public
health measures

dengue fever, sexuallytransmitted diseases

Lyme disease, malaria,
plague, rabies, yellow fever
influenza, HIV/AIDS, malaria,

Climate change
International travel
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S.
aureus
infections
rabies,
tuberculosis,
cholera, diphtheria
malaria, dengue fever,
cholera, yellow fever
malaria, cholera
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What is epidemiology?
Epidemiology is the study of disease
origin and spread. It covers various
aspects, including:

understanding the causation of

disease

explaining patterns of disease

investigating the natural history

of disease

public health planning.

Epidemiologists collect and analyse statistical data to

understand more about existing and emerging diseases.
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Incidence, prevalence and mortality

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Scientist case study

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What are HIV and AIDS?

In 2007, 33.2 million people were estimated to be living with
the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
HIV is a retrovirus
that causes acquired
immunodeficiency
syndrome (AIDS)
a deterioration of the
immune system.
There is currently no cure for infection with HIV; however,
antiretroviral drugs have been developed to help delay
the onset of AIDS.
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HIV replication

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Effect of HIV on the immune system

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Stages of HIV infection

Replace circles
with outline
of HIV taken
from animation

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Antiretroviral drugs
Modern antiretroviral drugs are designed to reduce the
production of HIV by targeting different stages of its lifecycle.

reverse transcriptase inhibitors

prevent viral RNA being copied into
DNA for protein synthesis.

protease inhibitors inhibit

proteases used in the synthesis
of viral proteins.

HIV can develop resistance to these drugs so they are

often taken in combination.
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HIV diagnosis and transmission

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HIV and AIDS

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What is malaria?
Malaria is a disease caused by a protozoan parasite.
There are several species of
the parasite, including
Plasmodium vivax, P. malariae
and P. falciparum, the latter
being is the most common and
the most dangerous type.
Malaria is transmitted by
a vector the Anopheles mosquito.
Approximately 40% of the worlds population, mostly those
living in the worlds poorest countries, are at risk of malaria.
Without treatment, malaria can be life-threatening.
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What is parasitism?
Parasitism is a close and permanent association between
two organisms in which one benefits and the other is harmed.
Some parasites are pathogens that cause diseases in
humans, such as malaria, African sleeping sickness,
toxoplasmosis and giardiasis.
Parasites can be classified into:

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endoparasites these live

within the body of a host,
e.g. tapeworm.

ectoparasites these live

on the surface of a host,
e.g. ticks.
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Symptoms of malaria
The symptoms of malaria include shivering, fever, sweating,
joint pain, vomiting and anaemia.
They typically occur cyclically every two to three days,
depending on which species of Plasmodium is involved.
If untreated, severe
malaria can lead to spleen
and liver damage, renal
failure, coma and death.
Young children are
especially vulnerable
due to their immature
immune systems.
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The malarial parasite life cycle

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Control of malaria
In the 1960s the incidence of malaria was greatly reduced
by the use of insecticides and drugs. However, the evolution
of resistance in mosquitoes and plasmodium species has
caused a resurgence of the disease.
Currently, different methods of control
and prevention are used. The
Anopheles mosquito can be controlled
using insecticides, environmental
management and biological control.
A genetically-modified, malariaresistant strain of mosquito has
also been developed. How might this
help control malaria?
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The distribution of malaria

Malaria is most common in the worlds equatorial regions.
The prevalence of malaria is linked to climate, because:

malarial parasites in the mosquito develop quicker

at higher temperatures

the life span of a mosquito

is linked to temperature
and humidity

mosquitoes need water to breed.

Malaria is therefore most common in warm, wet regions.

How might climate change affect the number of people
at risk from malaria?
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Climate change and malaria

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Life cycle of malaria

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What is tuberculosis?
Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by the airborne bacteria
Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It is a widespread disease
that affects the respiratory system.
One third of the worlds
population is currently
infected with the
bacterium.
TB can be treated using
a course of antibiotics;
however, antibiotic
resistance strains of TB
have emerged.

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Tuberculosis infection
When a person becomes infected with TB, an immune
response is produced.
In healthy people, white blood
cells called macrophages
engulf the bacteria by
phagocytosis, controlling the
infection.
A tissue mass called a tubercle
forms around the infected site,
and after 38 weeks the
infected region heals.
However, the bacteria can survive inside macrophages
for years until the immune system becomes weak.
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Symptoms of tuberculosis
If the patients immune system is unable to contain the
infection, active tuberculosis may occur. The bacteria will
multiply rapidly, destroying the lung tissue, which can be fatal.
A patient with active tuberculosis may experience symptoms
such as coughing, shortness of breath, loss of appetite,
weight loss, fever, night sweats and extreme fatigue.
Fever and night sweats occur due to neutrophils and
macrophages releasing fever-causing substances, as part of
the inflammatory response. These chemicals affect the
hypothalamus and increase core body temperature.
Why might an increase in temperature be harmful?
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Cause of tuberculosis?

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Tuberculosis: true or false?

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What are antibiotics?

Antibiotics are a group of drugs
used to treat bacterial infections.
They are effective against
prokaryotic cells but they generally
leave eukaryotic cells unharmed.
There are two different types
of antibiotics:
bactericidal kill bacterial cells

bacteriostatic slow the growth

or reproduction of bacteria.

Some antibiotics prevent the formation of bacterial cell

walls, resulting in osmotic lysis.
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Testing antibiotics

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Antibiotic resistance
In the presence of an antibiotic,
bacteria with resistance to that
antibiotic (due to genetic mutation)
have an advantage.
They are able to survive and
reproduce, giving rise to a population
of antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
In some cases this resistance
is evolving faster than the
development of new antibiotics.
M. tuberculosis has evolved resistance to streptomysin and
other antibiotics. Multi-drug resistant TB is still relatively
rare, but there is growing concern about its spread.
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Antibiotic resistance: MRSA

The bacteria Staphylococcus
aureus has become resistant
to most antibiotics, including
methicillin. This methicillinresistant S. aureus (MRSA),
which is becoming common
in hospitals, can cause a
life-threatening infection.
Due to the emergence of antibiotic resistance, several
methods of prevention and control have been adopted:
antibiotics should only be prescribed when needed

patients should finish the complete course of antibiotics

introduction of infection control in hospitals.

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Antibiotic resistance worldwide

pathogen

drug

Staphylococcus
aureus

methicillin
multidrug

Mycobacterium
tuberculosis

any drug
any drug
multidrug
chloroquine

Plasmodium
falciparum

Streptococcus
pneumoniae

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penicillin

country/region

% of drugresistant
infections

US
Japan

32
60

US
New York City
Eastern Europe
Kenya
Ghana
Zimbabwe
Thailand
US, Asia, Chile
Spain
Hungary

13
16
20
65
45
59
45
1035
20
58
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Glossary

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Whats the keyword?

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Which disease?

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Multiple-choice quiz

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