STRUCTURE OF

ATOM
MADE BY ; NITIN GAGAN
CLASS ; IX - C
 ATOM
Anatom is the smallest building block of
matter. Atoms are made of neutrons,
protons and electrons. The nucleus of an
atom is extremely small in comparison to
the atom. If an atom was the size of the
Houston Astrodome, then its nucleus would
be the size of a pea.
HISTORY OF ATOMISM
ORIGIN OF SCIENTIFIC THEORIES

 Further progress in the understanding of atoms

did not occur until the science of chemistry
began to develop. In 1661, natural philosopher
Robert Boyle published The Sceptical Chymist in
which he argued that matter was composed of
various combinations of different "corpuscules"
or atoms, rather than the classical elements of
air, earth, fire and water.[In 1789 the term
element was defined by the French nobleman
and scientific researcher Antoine Lavoisier to
mean basic substances that could not be further
broken down by the methods of chemistry.
 In 1803, English instructor and natural philosopher John Dalton used the
concept of atoms to explain why elements always react in a ratio of small
whole numbers—the law of multiple proportions—and why certain gases
dissolve better in water than others. He proposed that each element
consists of atoms of a single, unique type, and that these atoms can join
together to form chemical compounds. Dalton is considered the originator of
modern atomic theory.

 Additional validation of particle theory (and by extension atomic theory)

occurred in 1827 when botanist Robert Brown used a microscope to look at
dust grains floating in water and discovered that they moved about
erratically—a phenomenon that became known as "Brownian motion". J.
Desaulx suggested in 1877 that the phenomenon was caused by the
thermal motion of water molecules, and in 1905 Albert Einstein produced
the first mathematical analysis of the motion.French physicist Jean Perrin
used Einstein's work to experimentally determine the mass and dimensions
of atoms, thereby conclusively verifying Dalton's atomic theory.
 THOMSON’S MODEL OF ATOMIC
STRUCTURE

 The plum pudding model of the atom by J. J. Thomson, who

discovered the electron in 1897, was proposed in 1904 before
the discovery of the atomic nucleus. In this model, the atom
is composed of electrons (which Thomson still called
"corpuscles", though G. J. Stoney had proposed that atoms of
electricity be called electrons in 1894) surrounded by a soup
of positive charge to balance the electron's negative charge,
like negatively-charged "plums" surrounded by positively-
charged "pudding". The electrons (as we know them today)
were thought to be positioned throughout the atom, but with
many structures possible for positioning multiple electrons,
particularly rotating rings of electrons (see below). Instead of
a soup, the atom was also sometimes said to have had a
cloud of positive charge.
A SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE
PLUM PUDDING MODEL OF THE ATOM. IN
THOMSON'S MATHEMATICAL MODEL THE
"CORPUSCLES" (OR MODERN
ELECTRONS) WERE ARRANGED NON-
RANDOMLY, IN ROTATING RINGS.
RUTHERFORD’ MODEL OF ATOMIC
STRUCTURE

    Rutherford suggested to hit the gold-leaf (picture no.

1) with fast alpha particles from the source 214 Po. (The
source R was in the lead lining F). The particles felt from
the source on the gold-leaf E and were observed by the
microscope M. The whole experiment was in the metal
lining A and was covered with the glass plate P. The
instrument was attached to the footing B. The gold leaf
was about 5*10-7 meter thick. The scientist knew that
reckoning the scattering angle could say much about
the structure of atoms of the gold-leaf.
     Rutherford made a theoretical analysis of angles of scattering in
accordance with Thomson's theory of atom and in accordance with
his own theory. He assumed that atom consisted of positive
charged nucleus and negative charged electrons circling around
the nucleus. Then his theoretic calculations he compared with the
experiment result. Alpha particles going through atom created in
accordance with the "plum cake" model wouldn't be strong
abberated because the electric field in that atom wouldn't be
strong. In the model created by Rutheford the field is much
stronger near to the nucleus, so some of alpha particles are much
more abberated. The other going in the far distance to the nucleus
are almost not at all abberated. The probability that any alpha
particle will hit the nucleus is small but there is such a chance.
IN THE YEARS 1909-1911 ERNEST RUTHERFORDAND HIS
STUDENTS - HANS GEIGER (1882-1945) AND ERNEST
MARSDEN CONDUCTED SOME EXPERIMENTS TO SEARCH THE
PROBLEM OF ALPHA PARTICLES SCATTERING BY THE THIN
GOLD-LEAF. RUTHERFORD KNEW THAT THE PARTICLES
CONTAIN THE 2E CHARGE. THE EXPERIMENT CAUSED THE
CREATION OF THE NEW MODEL OF ATOM - THE "PLANETARY"
MODEL.
 BOHR’S MODEL OF ATOMIC
STRUCTURE

 A Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, showing an

electron jumping between fixed orbits and
emitting a photon of energy with a specific
frequency.
 Meanwhile, in 1913, physicist Niels Bohr
suggested that the electrons were confined into
clearly defined, quantized orbits, and could jump
between these, but could not freely spiral inward
or outward in intermediate states.
AN ELECTRON MUST ABSORB OR EMIT
SPECIFIC AMOUNTS OF ENERGY TO
TRANSITION BETWEEN THESE FIXED ORBITS.
WHEN THE LIGHT FROM A HEATED MATERIAL
WAS PASSED THROUGH A PRISM, IT PRODUCED
A MULTI-COLORED SPECTRUM. THE
APPEARANCE OF FIXED
LINES IN THIS SPECTRUM WAS SUCCESSFULLY
EXPLAINED BY THESE ORBITAL TRANSITIONS.
ATOMIC
STRUCTURE
 SUB ATOMIC PARTICLES

 The atom is a basic unit of matter consisting of a dense,

central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged
electrons. The atomic nucleus contains a mix of positively
charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons (except in
the case of hydrogen-1, which is the only stable nuclide with
no neutron). The electrons of an atom are bound to the
nucleus by the electromagnetic force.

 Likewise, a group of atoms can remain bound to each other,

forming a molecule. An atom containing an equal number of
protons and electrons is electrically neutral, otherwise it has
a positive or negative charge and is an ion.
o An atom is classified according to the number of protons
and neutrons in its nucleus: the number of protons
determines the chemical element, and the
number of neutrons determine the isotope of the element.

o An atom has the same number of electrons (- ve charge)

and protons (+ ve charge) to make the atom electrically
neutral. An extremely powerful force, called the nuclear
force, holds the protons together in the nucleus as they
naturally repelled one another electrically.
 ELECTRON
 An electron is a subatomic particle that carries a negative
electric charge. It has no known components or substructure,
and therefore is believed to be an elementary particle. An
electron has a mass that is approximately 1/1836 that of the
proton. The intrinsic angular momentum (spin) of the electron is
a half integer value of ħ, which means that it is a fermion.
 The antiparticle of the electron is called the positron, which is
identical to the electron except that it carries electrical and other
charges of the opposite sign. When an electron collides with a
positron, they may either scatter off each other or be totally
annihilated, producing a pair (or more) of gamma ray photons.
 Electrons, which belong to the first generation of the lepton
particle family, participate in gravitational, electromagnetic and
weak interactions.
 Electrons, like all matter, have quantum mechanical properties of
both a particle and a wave, so they can collide with other
particles and be diffracted like light. However, this duality is best
demonstrated in experiments with electrons, due to their tiny
mass. Since an electron is a fermion, no two electrons can
occupy the same quantum state, in accordance with the
Pauli exclusion principle
NEUTRON
 The neutron is a subatomic particle with no net
electric charge and a mass slightly larger than that of a
proton.
 Neutrons are usually found in atomic nuclei. The nuclei of
most atoms consist of protons and neutrons, which are
therefore collectively referred to as nucleons. The number
of protons in a nucleus is the atomic number and defines
the type of element the atom forms. The number of
neutrons is the neutron number and determines the isotope
of an element. For example, the carbon-12 isotope has 6
protons and 6 neutrons, while the carbon-14 isotope has 6
protons and 8 neutrons.
 While bound neutrons in stable nuclei are stable, free
neutrons are unstable; they undergo beta decay with a
mean lifetime of just under 15 minutes (885.7 ± 0.8 s). Free
neutrons are produced in nuclear fission and fusion.
Dedicated neutron sources like research reactors and
spallation sources produce free neutrons for use in
irradiation and in neutron scattering experiments.
PROTON
 The proton is a subatomic particle with an electric charge of +1
elementary charge. It is found in the nucleus of each atom,
along with neutrons, but is also stable by itself and has a
second identity as the hydrogen ion, H+.
 It is composed of three fundamental particles: two up quarks
and one down quarkProtons are spin-½ fermions and are
composed of three quarks,[4] making them baryons. The two
up quarks and one down quark of the proton are held together
by the strong force, mediated by gluons.[3]
 Protons and neutrons are both nucleons, which may be bound
by the nuclear force into atomic nuclei. The nucleus of the
most common isotope of the hydrogen atom is a single proton
(it contains no neutrons). The nuclei of heavy hydrogen (
deuterium and tritium) contain neutrons. All other types of
atoms are composed of two or more protons and various
numbers of neutrons.
 The number of protons in the nucleus determines the chemical
properties of the atom and thus which chemical element is
represented; it is the number of both neutrons and protons in a
nuclide which determine the particular isotope of an element.
 ISOBARS
 Atoms of an element having same mass
number but different atomic number are
known as isobars.
 Calcium, atomic number 20, and argon,
atomic number 18.The number of electrons
in these elements is 40. That is the total
number of nucleons is the same in the atoms
of this pair of elements
 ISOTOPES
 By definition, any two atoms with an identical
number of protons in their nuclei belong to the same
chemical element. Atoms with equal numbers of
protons but a different number of neutrons are
different isotopes of the same element. For example,
all hydrogen atoms admit exactly one proton, but
isotopes exist with no neutrons hydrogen-1, one
neutron (deuterium), two neutrons (tritium) and
more than two neutrons. The hydrogen-1 is by far the
most common form, and is sometimes called
protium. The known elements form a set of atomic
numbers from hydrogen with a single proton up to
the 118-proton element ununoctium. All known
isotopes of elements with atomic numbers greater
than 82 are radioactive.
 CHARGE OF AN ATOM
 The charges in the atom are crucial in
understanding how the atom works. An electron
has a negative charge, a proton has a positive
charge and a neutron has no charge.
 Electrons and protons have the same magnitude
of charge. Like charges repel, so protons repel
one another as do electrons. Opposite charges
attract which causes the electrons to be
attracted to the protons.
 As the electrons and protons grow farther apart,
the forces they exert on each other decrease.
 ATOMIC MASS
 Because the large majority of an atom's mass comes from the protons and
neutrons, the total number of these particles in an atom is called the mass number.
The mass of an atom at rest is often expressed using the unified atomic mass unit
(u), which is also called a Dalton (Da). This unit is defined as a twelfth of the mass
of a free neutral atom of carbon-12, which is approximately 1.66 × 10−27 kg.
Hydrogen-1, the lightest isotope of hydrogen and the atom with the lowest mass,
has an atomic weight of 1.007825 u. An atom has a mass approximately equal to
the mass number times the atomic mass unit. The heaviest stable atom is lead-208,
with a mass of 207.9766521 u.
 As even the most massive atoms are far too light to work with directly, chemists
instead use the unit of moles. The mole is defined such that one mole of any
element will always have the same number of atoms (about 6.022 × 1023). This
number was chosen so that if an element has an atomic mass of 1 u, a mole of
atoms of that element will have a mass very close to 0.001 kg, or 1 gram. Because
of the definition of the unified atomic mass unit, carbon has an atomic mass of
exactly 12 u, and so a mole of carbon atoms weighs exactly 0.012 kg. Other
nuclides have atomic masses and molar masses very close to whole numbers in
their usual units, such as hydrogen-1. However, except for carbon-12, they cannot
be exactly integer numbers, because the masses of different nuclides are not exact
integer ratios of each other, although they do not differ from whole number ratios
by more than 1%, and often much less.[citation needed]
 ATOMIC MASS NUMBER
 The mass number (A), also called atomic mass number or
nucleon number, is the total number of protons and neutrons
(together known as nucleons) in an atomic nucleus. Because
protons and neutrons both are baryons, the mass number A is
identical with the baryon number B as of the nucleus as of the
whole atom or ion. The mass number is different for each
different isotope of a chemical element. This is not the same
as the atomic number (Z) which denotes the number of
protons in a nucleus, and thus uniquely identifies an element.
Hence, the difference between the mass number and the
atomic number gives the number of neutrons (N) in a given
nucleus: N=A−Z.[1]
 The mass number is written either after the element name or
as a superscript to the left of an element's symbol. For
example, the most common isotope of carbon is carbon-12, or
12C, which has 6 protons and 6 neutrons. The full isotope
symbol would also have the atomic number (Z) as a subscript
to the left of the element symbol directly below the mass
number: 126C.[2] This is technically redundant, as each
element is defined by its atomic number, so it is often
omitted.
 ATOMIC RADIUS
 Atoms lack a well-defined outer boundary, so the dimensions
are usually described in terms of the distances between two
nuclei when the two atoms are joined in a chemical bond. The
radius varies with the location of an atom on the atomic chart,
the type of chemical bond, the number of neighboring atoms (
coordination number) and a quantum mechanical property
known as spin. On the periodic table of the elements, atom size
tends to increase when moving down columns, but decrease
when moving across rows (left to right). Consequently, the
smallest atom is helium with a radius of 32 pm, while one of the
largest is caesium at 225 pm. These dimensions are thousands
of times smaller than the wavelengths of light (400–700 nm) so
they can not be viewed using an optical microscope. However,
individual atoms can be observed using a
scanning tunneling microscope.
 Some examples will demonstrate the minuteness of the atom. A
typical human hair is about 1 million carbon atoms in width. A
single drop of water contains about 2 sextillion (2 × 1021)
atoms of oxygen, and twice the number of hydrogen atoms. A
single carat diamond with a mass of 2 × 10-4 kg contains about
10 sextillion (1022) atoms of carbon. If an apple were magnified
to the size of the Earth, then the atoms in the apple would be
approximately the size of the original apple
VALENCE (CHEMISTRY) AND CHEMICAL BOND

 The outermost electron shell of an atom in its uncombined state is known as

the valence shell, and the electrons in that shell are called
valence electrons. The number of valence electrons determines the bonding
behavior with other atoms. Atoms tend to chemically react with each other
in a manner that will fill (or empty) their outer valence shells. For example,
a transfer of a single electron between atoms is a useful approximation for
bonds which form between atoms which have one-electron more than a
filled shell, and others which are one-electron short of a full shell, such as
occurs in the compound sodium chloride and other chemical ionic salts.
However, many elements display multiple valences, or tendencies to share
differing numbers of electrons in different compounds. Thus,
chemical bonding between these elements takes many forms of electron-
sharing that are more than simple electron transfers. Examples include the
element carbon and the organic compounds.
 MODERN PERIODIC TABLE
 The chemical elements are often displayed in
a periodic table that is laid out to display
recurring chemical properties, and elements
with the same number of valence electrons
form a group that is aligned in the same
column of the table. (The horizontal rows
correspond to the filling of a quantum shell of
electrons.) The elements at the far right of
the table have their outer shell completely
filled with electrons, which results in
chemically inert elements known as the
noble gases.