Equipment Design (Week 5)

Dr. H.B. Vuthaluru

Some of the material presented in the lecture slides is
adapted from several textbooks and electronic resources

Types of Equipment
Types of equipment used in process industries
Proprietary
Non-proprietary

Proprietary equipment
pumps, compressors, filters, centrifuges, dryers
designed and manufactured by specialist firms

Non-proprietary equipment
Role of chemical engineer
usually limited to selecting and sizing the equipment

Types of Equipment
Example
Distillation column
Whats the role of chemical engineer

Determine the number of plates

Type and design of plates
Type and design of plate
Diameter of the column
Position of the inlet, outlet and instrument nozzles

What next??
This information is transmitted in the form of sketches,
specification sheets, to the specialist mechanical design groups or
fabricating design team for detailed design

Design Methods
Shortcut approaches (why??)
Less computer costs and time
Ability to provide approximate equipment sizing
Ability to provide quick costing estimates
Support more detailed engineering designs
Adequate for initial specification purposes

Equipment and selection method

Selection charts
Coulson & Richardson Volume 6
Walas, Chemical Process Equipment - Selection & Design
TEMA for heat exchangers
Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, Inc. (TEMA) is trade
association of leading manufacturers of shell and tube heat
exchangers, who have pioneered the research and development of heat
exchangers for over sixty years.

Perrys Handbook for Chemical Engineers

Selection chart - compressors

Heuristics
Whats the use of Heuristics??
Provides good initial start
Rules are based on general engineering practice

Widely used references

Jim Douglas (Conceptual Design )
Walas (Chemical Process Equipment)
Ulrich (Chem Eng Proc Design.)
McKetta (Encyl. Chem Proc. And Design)

Example Heuristics

Flash drums: 600s liquid residence

Steam use: 100-250C, Dowtherm>250C

Compressor efficiencies: 76-78%

Maximum compression ratio per stage: 4:1

Motor efficiencies: 85%

Control valves: 30% of total pressure drop or at least 70kPa

Shortcut design methods

Heat exchangers
Tanks
In-process pressure vessels
Separation columns
Pumps
Compressors

Design of heat exchangers

Procedure

Obtain key specifications from M&E balances (duty, flows, temperatures)

Estimate/obtain physical properties (, , k)
Select heat exchanger (TEMA Standards)
Obtain overall H/T coefficient (Uest)

Calculate Tm (log mean driving force)

Use governing equation to get area, A
Choose appropriate layout (shell/tube side passes etc)

Then
Calculate individual coefficients than U
Compare U and Uest
Calculate P (shell, tube sides)

Heat exchangers - Governing Equation

Q = UA Tm
Tlm = [(T1-t2)- (T2-t1)]/ln [(T1-t2)- (T2-t1)]
Tlm = Ft Tm
where Ft is the temperature correction factor
Adjusts Tlm for number of shell and tube passes (flow pattern)

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients

Many listings or charts
Walas Table 8.4
Coulson & Richardson Vol 6
Perry

Important to consider fouling factors

Tube side
Shell side
Overall
Listings in
C & R Vol 6
TEMA Standards
Ludwig, E.E.

Components of U

Shell and Tube HEs - TEMA Std

Typical S&T Exchangers

Fixed Tube Sheet
c

Typical S&T Exchangers

U-tube Exchanger (U)

Typical S&T Exchangers

Internal Floating Head (S)

HEs - Detailed Engineering Design

Principal references
TEMA Standards
Coulson &Richardson
Walas
BS3274
AS1210
AS3857

Storage Tanks and Drums

Principal references
AS1940-1993 (flammable and combustible liquids)
AS1692 (tanks for flammable and combustible liquids)
API620 and 650 (large, welded, low pressure storage tanks)
BS2654
Perry, Walas, C&R

Detailed design
Brownell and Young (1959)

Major Storage Tanks

Atmospheric storage
Cone roof tank
Floating roof tank

Low pressure storage (<100 kPa (g))

Horizontal, vertical, spherical
Dished, ellipsoidal, hemispherical ends

High pressure storage (in-process, LPG etc)

Horizontal, vertical, spherical
Pressure vessel codes apply (AS1210)

Cryogenic tanks (LOX, LIN, LAR, LNG)

Double wall design

Atmospheric Storage Tanks

High Pressure Storage Tanks

Cryogenic, Low Pressure

Refrigerated Tanks

In-process drums

Separation Columns

Type
Packed (random, structured)
Trays (sieve, valve)

Specifications
HK, LK in top and bottom products
Column pressure (determined by condensers)

Sizing

Minimum stages via Fenske; Min RR via Underwood

Performance via ASPEN PLUS
Actual column based on an efficiency (literature/correlation)
Diameter based on percent flooding
Pressure drop based on vapor-liquid correlations
Shell and head thicknesses via AS1210
Tall columns increase due to bending moment

Pumps
Selection (Coulson and Richarson, Vol 6)

Type
Cenrifugal
Reciprocating
Diaphragm
Rotary gear
Rotary vane

Capacity (m 3/h)
0.25-1000
0.5-500
0.05-50
0.05-500
0.25-500

Head (m)
1-50 (300 multistage)
50-200
5 to 60
60-200
7 to 70

Pumps - shortcut sizing

Power

PQP
P
P
P pressure drop ( N / m 2 )
QP flow rate (m / s )
3

P pump efficiency
0.7 for centrifugal
0.9 reciprocat ing

Gas moving equipment

Classification
Fans
Blowers
Compressors

P<15 kPa
3kPa< P<5 bar
P<5 bar

Types of compressors
Rotodynamic
Centrifugal
Axial

Positive displacement
Reciprocating piston
Rotary (screw, lobes, blades)

Rotarydynamic Compressors

Compressor sizing
Polytropic process:

Work:

whereW = work (W)

Z = compressibility factor
T1 = inlet temperature (K)

fZ1 RT1 n
W

M n 1

M = Mol wt.
P1, P2 = inlet and outlet pressures
n = polytropic coefficient (dependent on design/operation)
f = gas flowrate
R = 8.314 J/mol.K

P2
P
1

n 1

Compressibility Factor, Z

Compressor sizing
Temperature out:
Work:

P
T2 T1 2
P1

Polytropic exponent
m

where

Ep = polytropic efficiency (0.65-0.80)

m = polytropic temperature exponent

= (-1)Ep/
n = [Y-m(1+X)]
`
X, Y = compressibility functions

ZR 1
X

C P E p

Reactors
Heart of a chemical process
process where raw materials are converted into products
reactor design is a vital step in the plant design

Where do you find information on reactor design?

Rase (1977), (1990) covers practical aspects of reactor and
includes case studies of industrial reactors
Pickett (1979), Rousar et al. (1985) and Scott (1991) covers the
design of electrochemical reactors

Reactors
Design of a any reactor must satisfy the following
requirements:
Chemical factors: Sufficient residence time for the desired reaction
to attain required degree of conversion
Mass transfer factors: Reaction rates are governed by the rates of
diffusion of the reacting species with heterogeneous reactions rather
than the chemical kinetics
Heat transfer factors: The removal or addition of the heat of reaction
Safety factors (important): confinement of hazardous reactants and
products, and the control of the reaction and the process conditions

Types of Reactors
Characteristics used to classify reactor designs include:
Mode of operation
batch or continuous

Phase present
homogeneous (G or L) or heterogeneous (L/L, L/S, L/S/G, G/S, G/L)

Reactor geometry
flow pattern and manner of phase contact
examples include

stirred tank reactor

tubular reactor
packed bed, fixed and moving
fluidised

Design Procedure

Gather all the kinetic and thermodynamic data on the desired and side
reactions
Collect the physical property data
either from the literature, estimation or experiments

Identify the predominant rate-controlling mechanism, kinetic, mass or

heat transfer
Choose a suitable reactor type and materials
Make an initial selection of the reactor conditions
to arrive at the desired conversion and yield

Size the reactor and estimate its performance

Make a preliminary mechanical design
vessel design, heat transfer surfaces, internals

Cost the prosed design (capital and operating) and repeat to optimise the
design

Design of Pressure Vessels

Mechanical design of pressure vessels
Chemical Engineer will not usually be called on to undertake this task
Who does it then??
this is a specialised subject
usually carried out by mechanical engineers who are conversant with the current
design codes and practices and methods of stress analysis

Whats the role of chemical engineer?

Responsible for developing and specifying the basic design information for a
particular vessel
Responsible for developing and specifying the needs to have a general appreciation
of PV design to work effectively with specialist designer

Design of Pressure Vessels

Whats the basic data needed by the specialist designer??
Vessel function
Process materials and services
Operating and design temperature and pressure
Materials of construction
Vessel dimensions and orientation; Type of vessel heads to be used
Openings and connections required
Specification of heating and cooling jackets or coils
Type of agitator; Specification of internal fittings

Pressure Vessels
What constitutes a pressure vessel??
Any closed vessel over 150 mm diameter subject to a pressure
difference of more than 1 bar

Classification of pressure vessels

Two types
Thin-walled (if the ratio of wall thickness to vessel diameter < (1/10))
Thick-walled (if the ratio of wall thickness to vessel diameter > (1/10))

Class 1
majority of the vessels used in the chemical and allied industries

Class 2
for high pressure applications

Blowdown vessel
Prevent

vessel reaching the MAWP

API

RP 521 recommends reducing the

pressure in a vessel to 690 kPag or 50% of
the vessel design pressure, whichever is
lower, within 15 minutes.
Blowdown

or Blowup!

Rapid

decrease in vessel pressure causes

the inventory to expand and cool
As

the inventory cool it absorbs heat from

the vessel walls
If

the vessel walls cool below their ductilebrittle temperature they will be prone to
failure.
Good

estimate required for vessel design

Storage tank

Skid mounted
carbon steel filter
units

Skid mounted
carbon steel filter
units (side view)

Horizontal
pressurised
coagulation
tank

Clean in space tank

Steriliser and Flash Vessel

Steriliser, Flash Vessel and Condenser (different views)

Steriliser, Flash Vessel and Condenser (different views)

Principal Stresses
1 & 2
Longitudinal and circumferential stresses

3
Radial stress

Thin-walled
3 is small and can be ignored
1 & 2 can be taken as constant over the
wall thickness

Thick-walled
3 is significant
1 will vary across the wall

Pressure Vessel Codes and Standards

National standards and codes of practice
covers the design and fabrication of
thin-walled pressure vessels (in majority of the industrialised countries)

In many countries
codes and standards are legally enforceable

United Kingdom
British Standard specification for fusion-welded pressure vessels (BS 5500)
or equivalent code American Society of Mechanical Engineers code (ASME)

BS 5500
covers vessels fabricated in carbon and alloy steels and aluminium

BS 4994
covers the design of vessels in reinforced plastics

Pressure Vessel Codes and Standards

United States of America
American Society of Mechanical Engineers code (ASME)
This code is divided into several sections which cover

unfired vessels
boilers
nuclear reactor vessels and
vessels constructed of fibre-glass-reinforced plastics

What these national codes and standards supply??

They dictate the minimum requirements and give general guidance
for design and construction

Any extension beyond the minimum code requirement will be determined

by agreement between the manufacturer and customer

Pressure Vessel Codes and Standards

American Society of Mechanical Engineers code (ASME)
In the textbooks frequent reference is made in the following manner
ASME Division 1
ASME Division 2

Division 1 Code will be designated as ASME VIII-1

Division 2 Code will be designated as ASME VIII-2
Other ASME code sections
Such as Section II Part D will be designated as II-D

Many design rules in VIII-1 and VIII-2 are identical

These include flange design and external pressure requirements

Codes and Standards

ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers - From Construction to Post Construction

NBIC National Board Inspection Code - Repair and Inspection Code

API-510 American Petroleum Institute - Pressure Vessels used in Chemical & Petroleum

ASNT American Society Nondestructive Testing - Nondestructive Examination of

Materials

NEC National Electrical Code [NFPA- National Fire Protection Association] -Electrical
Devices

NFPA National Fire Protection Association - Service Conditions & Special Hazards

API-650 American Petroleum Institute - <15-psig to Atmospheric- Aboveground Storage

Tanks

DOT - Department of Transportation - Transportable Pressure Vessels

UL Underwriters Laboratory- Aboveground Storage Tanks and Electrical Devices

ASTM, ANSI,are material specifications

Codes and Standards

How these are formulated??
Are drawn up by committees of engineers in vessel design and
manufacturing techniques
Are a blend of theory, experiment and experience
Periodically reviewed and revisions will be issued to keep abreast of
developments in

design
stress analysis
fabrication &
testing

Computer programs are available

to aid in the design of vessels to BS 5500 and ASME code from several
commercial organisations
For eg. Engineering Standards Data Unit in the UK

Shell of revolution
A shell of revolution is the form swept out by a line or curve
rotated about an axis
A solid revolution is formed by rotating an area about an axis

Most process vessels

are made up from shells of revolution
they could have different heads

cylindrical
conical
hemispherical
ellipsoidal
torispherical

Solid revolution is formed by rotating an area about an axis

Fundamental Principles
Principal Stresses
the maximum values of the normal stresses at the point, which act on
planes on which shear stress is zero

Theories of failure
Elastic stability
Membrane stresses in shells of revolution
Flat plates (are used as covers for manholes, as blind flanges
and for the ends of small diameter and low pressure vessels
Types
Clamped edges
Simply supported

Fundamental Principles
Equation for flat plate
t CD

P
f

where:
t is thickness of the flat plate
C is a constant, which depends on edge support
C = 0.43 (if the edge is rigid)
C= 0.56 0.43 (if the edge is free to rotate)

D is the effective plate diameter

f is the maximum allowable stress
P is the pressure load

Dilation of vessels
under internal pressure a vessel will expand slightly
radial growth can be calculated from the elastic strain in the radial direction

Stress Analysis
In the stress analysis of pressure vessels
pressure vessel components are classified as primary or secondary

Primary stresses
are those that are necessary to satisfy the conditions of static
equilibrium
eg. Membrane stresses induced by the applied pressure and bending
stresses due to wind loads

if they exceed the yield point of the material

gross distortion and in the extreme situation, failure of the vessel will
occur

Stress Analysis
Secondary stresses
are those that arise from the constraint of adjacent parts of the vessels
theses are self-limiting
local yielding or slight distortion will satisfy the conditions causing the stress
and failure would not be expected to occur in one application of the loading
eg. Thermal stress set up by the differential expansion of parts of the vessel, due to
different temperatures or the use of different materials

The discontinuity that occurs between the head and the cylindrical section of
a vessel is a major source of secondary stress
Other sources
are the constraints arising at flanges, supports and the change of section due to
reinforcement at a nozzle or opening

General Design Considerations

(Pressure Vessels)
Design pressure and design temperature
Design stress
Welded joint efficiency
Construction categories
Corrosion allowances
Design loads
Minimum practical wall thickness

Design Pressure
Vessel designed
must be able to withstand the maximum pressure to which it is likely to
be subjected in any given operation

For vessels under internal pressure

design pressure is normally taken as the pressure at which the relief
device is set
this will normally be 5-10% above the normal working pressure

when deciding the design pressure

good to add hydrostatic pressure in the base of the column if significant

For vessels subjected external pressure

should be designed to resist the maximum differential pressure that is
likely to occur in service

Design Temperature
What effect it has on materials??
Strength of metals decreases with increasing temperature
Maximum allowable stress will depend on the material temperature

What needs to be done from design point of view?

Design temperature at which the design stress is evaluated
should be taken as the maximum working temperature of the material

Do make some allowances for any uncertainty involved in predicting

vessel wall temperature

Materials
Pressure vessels are constructed from
plain carbon steels, low and high alloy steels, other alloys, clad plate
and reinforced plastics

What factors one must consider while selecting material??

Suitability of the material for fabrication (in particular welding)
Compatibility of the material with the process environment.

Refer to the pressure vessel design codes and standards

which includes lists of acceptable materials
in accordance with the appropriate material standards

For eg. In UK, carbon and alloy steels for pressure vessels are covered
by BS 1501 plates, BS 1502 section etc.

Design Stress
From design point of view, it is necessary to decide
a value for the maximum allowable stress (nominal design strength) that
can be accepted in the material of construction

How it is done??
By applying suitable design stress factor (factor of safety) to the
maximum stress that the material could be expected to withstand without
failure under standard test conditions
Design stress factor allows for any uncertainty in the design methods, the
loading, the quality of the materials and the workmanship (refer to BS 5500)

Design stress is based on

yield stress or tensile strength of the material at the design temperature
(for materials not subject to high temperatures)

Welded Joint Categories (ASME VIII-1)

Category A joints consist mainly of longitudinal joints as well as circumferential joints
between hemispherical heads and shells.
B joints are the circumferential joints between various components
Attachment of flanges to shells or heads is a Category C joint
The attachment of nozzle necks to heads, shells and transition sections is categorised as a
D joint

Welded Joint Categories (ASME VIII-1)

Four joint categories in VIII-1 do not apply to the following items
- jacket closure bars
- tube sheet attachments
- ring girders (or supports)
Degree of examination of the welds attaching these components to the shell or head is not
covered in VII-1.
Most designers assign a value an E value of 1.0 when calculating the shell or head
thickness at such junctions.

Joint Efficiency Factors

As per ASME VIII, Div 1 and 2
All major longitudinal and circumferential butt joints must be
examined
By full radiography with few exceptions

VIII-1 in particular permits various levels of examination of these

joints
Why these joints are examined?
To detect the internal defects in the weld

Examination varies
From full radiographic to visual
Depending on various factors specified in VIII-1 and by the user

Joint Efficiency Factors

The degree of examination influences
The required thickness through the use of Joint Efficiency Factors
(E)
Sometimes these are called as Quality Factors or Weld Efficiencies
Serve as stress multipliers applied to vessel components
When some of the joints are not fully radiographed

These multipliers results in an increase in the factor of safety as well as

the thickness of these components

Joint Efficiency Factors

In essence, VIII-1 vessels have variable factors of safety
Depending on the degree of radiographic tests of main vessel joints
For eg. Joint Efficiency Factor in a fully radiographed butt-welded
joints in cylindrical shells have a E = 1.0
E= 1 corresponds to a safety factor of 4 in the parent material

Non-radiographed longitudinal butt-welded joints have an E value of

0.7
This reduction in E corresponds to factor of safety of 5.71 in the plates

Highest factor of safety due to a nonradiographed joint results

In a 43% increase in the required thickness over that of a fully
radiographed joint

Joint Efficiency Factors

Factors used to design a component are
Dependent on the type of examination performed at the welds of
component.
For eg. The Joint Efficiency Factor in a fully radiographed longitudinal
seam of shell course E = 1.0
Taking the factor E as 1.0 implies that the joint is equally as strong as the
virgin plate
However, this number may have to be reduced, depending on the degree of
examination of the circumferential welds at either end of the longitudinal
seam.
Several handbooks show some typical components and their corresponding
Joint Efficiency Factors.

Category C weld which

identifies the attachment
of a flange to a shell, can
be either fillet, corner, or
butt welded
Joint Efficiency Factors
apply only to the buttwelded joint in sketch c
The factors do not apply
to sketches a and b.

Category C weld which

identifies the attachment
of a flange to a shell, can
be either fillet, corner, or
butt welded
Joint Efficiency Factors
apply only to the buttwelded joint in sketch c
The factors do not apply
to sketches a and b.

The categories refer to a location within

a vessel rather than detail construction.
Eg. Category C weld which identifies
the attachment of a flange to a shell,
can be either fillet, corner, or butt
welded as illustrated on the next slide.

Corrosion Allowance
This is the additional thickness of metal added to allow for
material lost by corrosion and erosion or scaling
Allowance to be used will be based on the agreement between the
customer and manufacturer

Corrosion is a complex phenomenon

it is not possible to give specific rules for the estimation of the corrosion
allowance required for all situations

How do deal with this matter?

The allowance should be based on experience with the material of
construction under similar service conditions to those for the proposed
design
For carbon and low-alloy steels 2 mm (where no severe corrosion is not
anticipated); 4 mm for severe conditions
Most design codes and standards specify a minimum allowance of 1 mm

Design Loads
A structure must be designed
to resist gross plastic deformation and collapse under all the conditions of
loading

Classification of loads
Major loads
Subsidiary loads

Major loads

design pressure including any static head of liquid

maximum weight of the vessel and contents under operating conditions
Loads supported by, or reacting on, the vessel
maximum weight of the vessel and contents under hydraulic test conditions
Earthquake loads and wind loads

Design Loads
Subsidiary loads
Local stresses caused by supports, internal structures and connecting
pipes
Shock loads caused by water hammer
Bending moments caused eccentricity of the centre of working pressure
relative to the neutral axis of the vessel
Stresses due to temperature differences
subsequent effect arising due to the differences in the coefficient of
expansion of materials

Loads caused by fluctuations in temperature and pressure

A vessel will not be subject to all these loads at the same time
Designer must determine
possible combinations of these loads likely to result in worst situation
and design for that loading condition

Minimum Practical Wall Thickness

Why we need to bother about this??
It is important that there is a minimum wall thickness required
to ensure that any vessel is sufficiently rigid to withstand its
own weight
any incidental loads

General rule
the wall thickness of any vessel should not be less than the values
given below
these values include a corrosion allowance of 2 mm
Vessel diameter (m) Minimum thickness (mm)
1
5
1 to 2
7
2 to 2.5
9
2.5 to 3.0
10
3.0 to 3.5
12

Basic Mechanical Details

vessel openings (nozzles, stub ends)
compensation

support design (saddles, ladders, walkways)

flanges and ratings

flat face (FF)

raised face (RF)
slip-on/Van Stone
ring
spigot/socket

internals (weirs, supports, plates, distributors etc.)

materials of construction/gasketing/finishing

Entries and Nozzles

Inlet

SS nozzle & welded

neck joint
(Std ANSI 150)

Standard nozzle

Inside Pressurized Shell and Pipe

Codes: VIII div1 A2000, UG-32, UCS-79(d)

Inside Pressurized Heads

Codes: VIII div1 1998 A2000 section UG-32, App. 1-4, UCS-79(d),
UG-32 (f) and UG-37 1(a)

Fittings

Lifting Lugs

Stiffening Rings

Vessel supports

Saddle supports

Welded legs

LEG SUPPORT DESIGN

Vertical vessel mounted on
beams

B16.5 Flanges
Codes: ASME VIII div1 2001, UW-15(c) -- ASME B16.5 1996

EQUIPMENT SCHEDULE:
EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATIONPLAN
NUMBER
NUMBER
NUMBER

DESCRIPTION

LOCATION

T-xxx

Pressurized NG storage

Bulk storage facility

ES-xxx

PFD-xxx

PURPOSE

ORDER NO

SUPPLIER

TBA

TBA

EQUIPMENT SCHEDULE
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
Project: Space Launch Systems
Specification No: ES-1001

CLIENT: XXXXXX
Initiator:

Checked:

Approved:

Date: 16/09/04

Ver.

Page1
Of 1

Requirements for Sizing and Specification

Tanks and General Pressure Vessels
Type (Cone roof, floating, cylindrical PV) Type (Cone roof, floating,
cylindrical PV)
Capacity (m Capacity (m3)
Length, height, diameter (m) [aspect ratio]
Operating/Design Pressure, temperature
Orientation (vertical, horizontal, spherical)
Nozzles Nozzles size (NB), type, rating and location
Inlets, outlets, drains Inlets, outlets, drains
Instruments ( Instruments (LGs LGs, P, L, T), sampling, PVRV
Foam entry points (storage tanks)

Supports (Saddle, legs, plinths, pads)

Materials selection Materials selection

Requirements for Sizing and Specification

Heat exchangers

Type (S&T Type (S&T- TEMA Std, plate, spiral, compact)

Duty (kW) & Heat transfer area (m2)
Length, height, diameter (m)
S&T Orientation (vertical, horizontal)
Shell side & Tube side operating /design conditions
Nozzles Nozzles size (NB), type, rating and location
Inlets, outlets (process flows)
Steam / Cooling water
Instruments (LGs, P, L, T)

Supports (Saddle, legs, plinths) Supports (Saddle, legs, plinths)

Materials selection Materials selection

Sample Data Sheet (Appendix H)

Case Study

Heat Exchanger Details

Tube pitch options

Triangular: higher heat transfer, higher pressure drop

Square: lower HT, lower pressure drop, easier cleaning

Shortcut design procedure - HEs

Look up for
U and tube
counts from
Tables

Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Major references:

McKetta, J., Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design

Ulrich, G., A Guide to Chemical Engineering Process Design and Economics

Escoe, A.K., Mechanical Design of Process Systems Vols 1 and 2

Backhurst, J. and J. Harker, Process Plant Design

Coulson, J., Richardson, J. and R. Sinnott, Chemical Engineering Vol 6 Design

Chemical Engineering, (bimonthly magazine from McGraw Hill) TN1.M43

Australian Standards & British Standards

Utilities & Design Considerations

These are the items required in any process plants
also called process consumables
can be divided into several of the following categories

Water
Steam
Electric Power
Refrigeration
Compressed air
Inert Gas
Miscellaneous

Water
Whats the use of this utility in a Chemical Process Plant??
Used in chemical reactions and in washing, extracting,
dissolving and similar processing operation, for drinking,
sanitary and general clean-up, washing etc.

Utilities
Types of water
Fresh water, treated or untreated well or city water
in some cases distilled water or deionized water may be required

This utility could be used for extracting or adding heat to the

system
Steam
Some unit operations (such as removal of HCs from oil
mixtures or steam reforming etc.) require large amounts of
steam
Usually supplied by an in-house gas fired boiler
Radiation and line losses must be taken into account while
design estimates are made

Utilities
Electric Power
Several process equipment's and motors require electric
power
can be accessed from the local power generating company
Additional power can also be generated within the plant
either gas or fuel based
to reduce the load or dependence on the main supply (partially)
use for temporary power failures

Refrigeration
Used mainly to supply cooling water
Examples
for single-stage ammonia compression which requires cooling
water at 85F
Steam jet refrigeration used to obtain cooling water at 50F
(steam jet refrigeration is especially advantageous with cheap
low-pressure exhaust steam and cooling water available)

Utilities
Compressed air
used for pneumatic transport, pumping air into the system
(power utility) etc.
usually supplied from an air compressor
Air compressor
A machine which usually sucks in air and compresses same so
that it ultimately occupies a smaller volume.
The resulting air will not only occupy a smaller volume, it will
have a higher pressure and a higher temperature.

Inert Gas
N2, CO2, Ar and He are examples of inert gases
used for start-up and purging operations

Miscellaneous
This includes gaskets, lubricants, paint, test chemicals etc.

Cooling Water Systems

Three systems normally used are:
Once through
Open evaporative recirculating
Closed non-evaporative recirculating

Once through systems

Cooling water passes through the heat exchanger once.
Once through systems can be used when plenty of cheap
cool water is available and adequate facilities for disposal
of warm water exist.
Advantages:
No cooling tower system; No water treating
Disadvantages:
Corrosion; Fouling, Waste of water and Thermal pollution of river

Cooling Water Systems

Open evaporative recirculating
systems
Cooling water evaporate about 1% water
Water is reused after make up.

Advantages:
Less water required
Enhanced corrosion control feasible

Disadvantages:
Higher capital cost than once through
Large cooling towers may be unacceptable
System purge may pose environmental problems

Cooling Water Systems

Closed nonevaporative
recirculating systems
Cooling water is cooled in a secondary
(air) heat exchanger.
No evaporate
No makeup.
Advantages:
Water remains clear
Cooling water temperature above 100 oC is
possible

Disadvantages:
High capital cost
Limited by air temperature
Open evaporative systems are usually
used

Cooling Water Systems

Evaporation in the cooling tower causes
a build up of suspended/dissolved solids which can inhibit heat transfer
by building up on heat exchanger surfaces - usually mould steel.

Two problems in cooling water system

Fouling
silting/sedimentation (particles in source water, e.g. sand)

scaling (precipitation of salts)

biological growth (heat, oxygen, phosphates promote biological
growth)
corrosion

Cooling Water Systems

Cooling water treatment is required
to overcome fouling and corrosion problems.
purpose of water treatment is to control fouling and
corrosion.

Environmental considerations may restrict

the disposal & choice of treatment chemicals,
e.g. chromate treatments are widely applied in view of their
corrosion protection. However, the discharge of chromate
treated water is viewed with increasing concern.

Inlet water quality must be first known:

e.g. pH, total dissolved solids, suspended solids, Ca ++, SO4--,

Scale formation
Precipitation of the least soluble salts may occur
for eaxmple e.g. CaCO3, CaSO3.
Ca++ + 2(HCO3)-- CaCO3 + H2O + CO2

High concentration of Ca ++ and SO4-- may result in

calcium sulphate scale (CaSO4).

What are the effects of scale formation?

Scale affects heat transfer efficiency
With stainless steel, scaling may promote stress corrosion
cracking

Pumping cost will increase

Energy requirements will be higher

Scale prevention
Scale prevention
Higher system purge
to reduce CF at the expense of higher water/chemical costs.

Soften makeup water:

using external ion exchangers.

Acid treatment to reduce [CO3--]:

with water of medium to high CaCO3, i.e. > 800 mg/l, reducing the
alkalinity to 20 - 40 mg/l will reduce CO3-- below the scaling level. H2SO4
or HCl are normally used.

Scale inhibitors:
modify crystal scale growth
inorganic: polyphosphates

organic: phosphorous compounds

Steam
Steam is used as a medium for transferring and transporting
energy.
Heating by steam condensation (heat exchanger)
Mechanical work done by steam expansion (through turbine)
Energy stored by latent heat and pressure

In plant environment, typically a steam system

includes:
Central steam boiler
Steam main circuit around plant
Heat exchangers for process heating
Condensate return line to boiler

Steam
Issues for steam distribution

Distribution pressure
Pipe expansion
Heat loss
Condensate/air removal

Distribution pressure
High pressure
Advantages: smaller mains; low installation cost; less insulation
required
Disadvantages:
high pressure heat exchanger equipment or local pressure reduction valves
required
difficult to recover low grade heat (low temperature) as regenerated steam

Issues of Steam Distribution

Pipe expansion
Difference in pipe dimension
when in use and when not in use

Expansion allowance required

Expansion fittings:
full loop; horse shoe; sliding joint

Heat loss prevention

Steam is hotter than surroundings, therefore heat loss is
inevitable.
Lagging is used to prevent heat loss
Typically lagged pipe heat loss 5-10% of that from bare pipe

Issues of Steam Distribution

Condensate/air removal (steam traps)
Condensate collects at low points in pipe system.
If not removed, pipe network will eventually be liquid filled.
"Water hammer":
Fast moving gas meets slow moving slug of liquid resulting in
rapid vibration of pipe work.

Condensate accumulation controlled by deliberate slops in

pipe work with intermittent drain points.
Drain points are known as "Steam Traps".

Issues of Steam Distribution

Types of steam traps
Thermostatic steam traps
Based on temperature difference between steam and
condensate.
Liquid expansion steam trap

Bimetallic steam trap

Balanced pressure steam trap
Mechanical float steam trap
Based on density difference between steam and condensate.

Air removal
When the steam system is shut down
the pipe network is usually air filled
Air can be purged using thermostatic steam traps
because the temperature of air is lower than that of steam.

Boiler Feed Water Treatment

Loss of water from steam system due to:
Steam leaks
Loss of condensate
Blowdown

Therefore, makeup of fresh water to the boiler is

required.
Fresh water contains impurities:
Suspended solids
organic matter

dissolved salts

These will lead to fouling and corrosion (as with

cooling system).
Here the major concern is for boiler which is operated at
high temperature and high pressure.

Nitrogen
Use of nitrogen:
Blanketing flammable or O2 sensitive mixture
Purging flammable volatile vapour from empty vessels
Transferring flammable or O2 sensitive liquids between vessels
Process gas stream diluent

N2 sources:
Delivered from N2 manufacturer
On site generation

Nitrogen
Delivered N2
Advantages:
high purity supply possible

flexibility in volume supplied

little or no capital investment in N2 producing equipment
standard delivery pressure up to 10 atmosphere
liquid N2 supply as coolant

Deliver options depends on volume

required
Gas cylinders (up to 150 kg/day) or Dewar flasks (liquid
N2, 18 ton/day)

Nitrogen
On-site N2 generation
Cryogenic purification
Pressure swing adsorption
Membrane separation

Selecting N2 supply
Decision depends on
Flow rate required
Purification of N2 required
Pattern of demand
Cost of electrical power available on-site
Temperature (coolant) and pressure of supply required
Liquid or gas N2 required

Compressed Air
Use of compressed air

Pneumatic instruments/controllers (2.5bar)

Pneumatic driven equipment, e.g. pumps, drills, etc. (6bar)
Pneumatic conveying (granulated solids)
Aeration of fermentation (O2 supply)
Drying solids
Air stripping (organic removal from H2O)

For these purposes the air used must be

Free of particulate (dust, fume, rust)
Free of condensibles (moisture, hydrocarbons)
free of other contaminants (SO2, H2S, etc.)

Compressed Air
What happens if you have particulate material??
Particles in the air are carried into compressor
trapped in lubricating oil
can be very damaging to the bearings

conveyed around air distribution network

contamination of product

damage pneumatic instruments/control valves

abrasion damage to pneumatically driven mechanical
equipment

Compressed Air
Filters used on air intake
Oil wetted filters: labyrinth filter, oil bath filter
particles forced to impinge on surface wetted with oil
particles trapped in the oil film
oil droplets may be entrained and carried through to compressor
therefore use same oil as compressor lubricant

regular cleaning and maintenance required

Fabric filters
"deep pleated" woven and nonwoven fabrics (gives large filter area)
supported by wire mesh
used to oil free air supplies
cleaned by back flushing and/or solvent rinse

Paper filters are similar to fabric filters

mechanically less strong
needs to damp pulsations that occur with reciprocating compressors

 Condensibles

Compressed Air

water and lubricant oil present as vapour

initial compression reduces air capacity for H 2O at ambient temperature,
therefore condensation occurs
subsequent fluctuation in air temperature (e.g. indoor to outdoor lines)
during distribution can cause condense of H 2O
water precipitate problems
freezing in lines/equipment (damage)
corrosion of lines and equipment
oil/water emulsions clogging of equipment
water hammer in pipe work vibration damage

Removal of water
Air dryers, eg. packed column of desiccant (e.g. silica gel)
regenerated by hot stream of air in reverse flow - Temperature Swing Adsorption

Compressed Air
Air filters/water separators
inlet air encouraged to follow rotating motion
particles/droplets impinge on wall and settle at base of chamber
splash guard prevents re-entrainment
exit air forced through a filter element to remove fine particles

Water traps
As with steam distribution, liquid must be released periodically.
Mechanical float traps used