Geotechnical Engineering A

2. Minerals
(Reference to notes: www.geology.csupomona.edu
Textbook: A Geology for Engineers by Blyth & Freitas)

Contents

1. Minerals
2. Mineralogy
2.1 Chemical Mineralogy
2.3 Crystallography Mineralogy
2.2 Physical Mineralogy
2.2.1 Colour
2.2.2 Streak
2.2.3 Lustre
2.2.4 Hardness
2.2.5 Cleavage
2.2.6 Fracture
2.2.7 Tenacity
2.2.8 Specific Gravity
2.2.9 Crystal Shapes Forms
2.4 Other Properties
3. Rock Forming Minerals
4. Identification of Unknown Minerals

1. Minerals
A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic (non-living)
substance.
Each mineral has a particular chemical composition which can be
expressed as a chemical formula.
Although most minerals are chemical compounds, a small number
(e.g. sulfur, copper and gold) are elements.
However, the majority of minerals are compounds comprising two
or more elements, for example NaCI which comprises sodium and
chlorine, forming sodium chloride or Halite - Salt
Minerals are usually of uniform composition and minerals form
the building blocks which make up rocks.
Within the rock mass, however, the proportion of minerals will
vary from one sample to another.
Some rocks comprise mainly one mineral type but the majority are
a mixture of a number of different minerals.
Mineralogy is that branch of geology which is concerned with the
study of minerals.

2. Mineralogy

Mineralogy is the identification of minerals and the study of

their properties, origin, and classification.
Approximately 3,000 mineral
exist in nature.
The most important properties
for identifying minerals and
distinguishing them from one
another are:
1.

Chemical mineralogy

2.

Crystallography

3.

Physical mineralogy

2.3 Crystallography
When minerals form, they can grow without interference from neighboring
grains.
They commonly develop into regular geometric shapes, called crystals

 The crystalline form of individual crystal which make up

minerals is related to the atomic structure of the crystals.
A very simple example of how the atomic structure influences the
crystal shape is Sodium chloride NaCl (Salt)
This model show
the atomic
structure of salt the balls represent
the positions of
the atoms within
salt crystal

Note how the

structural model
closely resembles a
real salt crystal
both look like cubes
due to the packing of
the atoms

If mineral crystals grow freely form a liquid state, they assume their own
characteristic shape, with the angles between adjacent crystal faces constant for
similar crystals of a particular mineral.

The faces are referenced to

crystallographic axes

Crystallographic axes intersect at a common origin and they form the framework
on which the faces of the crystal are erected.
Crystal systems are:

2.2 Physical Mineralogy

The physical properties of minerals are used to identify and
characterise them.
Most of the physical properties can be recognised at sight or
determined by simple tests.
Colour
Not all of these
Streak
properties are normally
Lustre
required to identify any
one mineral; 2 or 3 of
Hardness
them taken together
Cleavage
may be sufficient
Fracture
Tenacity
Specific Gravity
Crystal Shape - Forms

2.2.1 Colour

Some minerals have a distinctive colour which

clearly aids identification.
For example, sulphur is bright yellow.

Many other minerals show a variety of colours

depending on the extent to which the base
colour has been affected by trace substances.
A typical example of this is fluorite which
can be brown, purple, pink, green or blue
when it contains impurities.

Minerals of one colour are said to be

idiochromatic whereas minerals of variable
colour are allochromatic.

2.2.2 Streak
Streak is usually produced
by rubbing the mineral on a
piece of unglazed porcelain
or on a streak plate.
A mineral in a powdered
condition has a much more
reliable colour than its
colour in the mass.
Streak is useful in clearly
identifying some minerals
but is not a useful
diagnostic property of the
many silicate minerals
which are often too hard to
produce streak.

Black Graphite
Black Pryite
Black Magnetite
Black Chalcopyrite

Grey Galena
Limonite Yellow-brown
Hematite Red-brown

2.2.3 Lustre
Lustre is the is the way its surface reflects light.
It is subdivided into:
Metallic as in Pyrite
Sub-metallic as shown by semi-opaque
oxides such as haematite
Non-metallic as shown by transparent
minerals as in Kaolinite

Ref: www.geology.csupomona.edu

Metallic Lustre - Pyrite

Non-metallic is further described as:

Vitreous glassy as in Obsidian

Adamantine - Sparkly such as

diamonds
Resinous - Lustre of resin such as an opal Non-metallic Lustre - Kaolinite
Pearly - As a pearl, talc being an example
Silky - Used to describe a fibrous structure
Greasy - Lustre produced by a mineral
with many tiny irregularities on the surface
Earthy - No lustre, also called dull

Glassy Lustre - Obsidian

2.2.4 Hardness

This is a measure of resistance to abrasion or scratching.

It is measured relative to a reference set often minerals which is known as
Mohs Scale of Hardness:
MINERAL HARDNESS
Talc

Gypsum

Calcite

Fluorite

Apatite

Feldspar

Quartz

Topaz

Corundum

Diamond

10

COMMON TESTS
Scratched by fingernail
Scratched by copper coin
Steel Nail

Scratches a knife balde or window glass

Scratches all common materials

Hardness is tested by scratching the minerals of Mohs Scale with the specimen.
Hence, a mineral which scratches 4 Fluorite but not 5 Apatite, has a hardness H = 4-5.

This is a simple useful test and an example of its use is in distinguishing between Calcite
(H=3) and Quartz (H=7).

2.2.5 Cleavage
Many minerals will break easily in certain directions.
This feature is known as cleavage
and it is dependant upon the atomic
structure of the mineral.
The split will usually leave a
smooth, plane surface called
the cleavage plane.
Cleavage can occur in one or
more directions.

Mineral cleavage is
described as perfect, good,
distinct or imperfect.

NaCl (salt)

Weak layers of bonds between

atoms = cleavage planes

2.2.6 Fracture
Fracture refers to the irregular, broken
surface of a mineral.
Types of fracture are:

Cleavage

weak bonds

Fracture
strong bonds

Conchoidal - Breaks with a convex or concave surface

Even - Nearly flat

Uneven - rough
Rough Small, shape, irregularities on the surface.

2.2.7 Tenacity
This describes the response of a mineral to hitting,
cutting or bending.
Terms used to describe tenacity are:

Malleable e.g. gold. copper.

Brittle - Fracture when hit with a hammer
Sectile - Can he cut with a knife
Flexible and elastic - Mica bends and returns to a flat
tabular state when left
Flexible and inelastic - Gypsum flakes are flexible but do
not regain their original shape

2.2.8 Specific Gravity

Specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of a body of the solid to that of
an equal volume of water.
Most minerals and rocks have a specific gravity of between 2 and 5
but the Specific Gravity can range from about one to more than 20.

Specific Gravity can be quite useful as some minerals feel unusually

light or heavy.

2.2.9 Crystal Shapes - Forms

Typical commonly occurring crystal shapes are:
Drusv - closely packed
small crystals growing
into a cavity
Radiated - Needle
like crystals radiating
from a central point

Granular In coarse or
fine grains

Fibrous - Thread
like strands
Reticulated - A
mesh of crossed
crystals

Terms used to describe clusters of minerals is Form:

Acicular - Fine needle
like crystals, also known
as filoform.

Botryoidal - Spheroidal
aggregations (resembling
a bunch of grapes)
Concretionary or nodular Detached masses of spherical,
ellipsoidal or irregular shape

Dendritic - Moss
or tree like forms
Reniform Kidney shaped
Tabular
Based flat
surfaces

2.4 Other Properties (CAUTION)

Magnetism a few minerals are Reaction with Dilute
Hydrochloric Acid
attracted to a magnet or are
Minerals containing the
themselves capable of acting as
2carbonate
anion
(CO
)
3
magnets (e.g. magnetite)
effervesce (fizz) when a drop
Feel e.g. talc and graphite feel
of dilute hydrochloric acid is
greasy or slippery when you rub
placed on them.
your fingers over them the
Carbon dioxide is released
pressure of your finger is
from the mineral & bubbles
sufficient break bonds and to
out through the acid
slide planes of atoms past each
creating a fizz
other.
Taste e.g. salt, however some
minerals can are poisonous!

3. Rock Forming Minerals

Minerals combine with each other to form rocks

e.g. Granite (rock) = feldspar + quartz + mica + amphibole (minerals in varying ratio)

The minerals within a rock sample

are described as:
Essential constituents whose
presence is implied by the rock
name
Accessory which are present in
smaller quantities than the
essential minerals.
Secondary minerals are those
present in the rock which have
resulted from the decomposition
of previous minerals.

Minerals in hand specimens of

rock are usually observed and
identified using a hand lens.
The characteristics most often
used in identifying minerals in
rocks are:
General shape of grains
Colour / transparency
Cleavage
Twinning (two crystals that
have grown together)

Hardness

4. Identification of Unknown Minerals

www.geology.csupomona.edu/alert/mineral/id1.htm

Step 1 Lustre (metallic or non-metallic)

Sheen of metal

Glassy (allow light to

pass), dull or waxy

Lustre = metallic
Step 2 Hardness
Fingernail (hardness = 1-2)
Steel Nail (Hardness = 5)
Knife blade (Hardness = >5)
Lustre = metallic; Hardness >5
Step 3 Streak test

Black

Redbrown

Lustre = metallic; Hardness >5; Streak = Red-brown

Step 3 Cleavage
= no apparent cleavage

Hematite Fe2O3

Identification of Minerals

Metallic (Step 1 Lustre )

Step 2 Hardness

Fingernail
(hardness 1-2)

Steel Nail
(hardness 5)

Step 3 Streak

Black

No
Cleavage

LIMONITE

Step 4
Cleavage

No
Cleavage

No
Cleavage

3 direction
900

No
Cleavage

6 directions

3 directions 900

Magnetic

CHALCOPYRITE

Red-Brown

Black

Yellow

Step 4 Cleavage

Step 4 Cleavage

One
direction

Step 3 Streak

Step 3 Streak

YellowBrown

Black

Knife blade
(hardness >5)

Non- HEMATITE
magnetic

GOLD

SPHALERITE
MAGNETITE
GRAPHITE

GALENA

GALENA

No
Cleavage

PYRITE

Nonmetallic (Step 1 Lustre )

Dull, Vitreous,
Adamantine,Resinous, Pearly, Silky,
Greasy & Earthy

Step 2 Hardness

Fingernail
(hardness 1-2)

Steel Nail
(hardness 5)

Knife blade
(hardness >5)

Step 3 Streak

Step 3 Streak

Step 3 Streak

Step 4
Cleavage
White

Step 4
Cleavage No Cleavage
(earthy smell)

Yellow

One
direction

3 directions 900

4 directions

2 directions 900

BIOTITE

Colourless to chalky
white, poor cleavage
(blocky)

HALITE

FLUORITE

Fizzes vigorously in
Only slight fizzes in
hydrochloric acid hydrochloric acid - fizzes
more when mineral is
crushed into a power
CALCITE

CHLORITE

MOSCOVITE

HEMATITE

3 directions
not 900

SULFUR

TALC

No Cleavage

LIMONITE

Larger, silvery
or transparent
flakes

Red Brown

No Cleavage

KAOLINITE

Small green
flakes

Pale Green Colourless

White
colourless

No
Cleavage

No Cleavage

One
direction

Small flakes
slippery feel

Yellow Brown

White

Green Brown

GYPSUM

DOLOMITE

QUARTZ
PLAGIOCLASE ORTHOCLASE
FELDPAR
FELDPAR

GARNET

Title: Minerals Rocks &

Fossils
Author: Bishop, Woolley &
Hamilton
Pub: Philips
ISBN: 0-540-07429-2
Price: 9.99
Modules:
Geotechnical Engineering A coursework number 1