Part I of Fundamental

Measurements:
Uncertainties and Error
Propagation
http://www.rit.edu/~uphysics/uncertaintie
s/Uncertaintiespart2.html
Vern Lindberg, Copyright July 1, 2000
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Contents-1 of
Uncertainties and Error Propagation
1. Systematic vs Random Error
2. Determining Random Errors
(a) Instrument Limit of Error, least count
(b) Estimation
(c) Average Deviation
(d) Conflicts
(e) Standard Error in the Mean
3.
What does uncertainty tell me? Range of possible v
alues
4. Relative and Absolute error

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Contents-2 of
Uncertainties and Error Propagation
5. Propagation of errors
(a) add/subtract
(b) multiply/divide
(c) powers
(d) mixtures of +-*/
(e) other functions
6. Rounding answers properly
7. Significant figures
8. Problems to try
9. Glossary of terms (all terms that are bold face
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and underlined)
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Simple Content
1. Systematic and random errors.
2. Determining random errors.
3. What is the range of possible values?
4. Relative and Absolute Errors
5. Propagation of Errors, Basic Rules

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1. Systematic & Random Errors

No measurement made is ever exact.

The accuracy (correctness) and precision

(number of significant figures) of a
measurement are always limited:

1.

by the degree of refinement of the apparatus

used,

2.

by the skill of the observer, and

3.

by the basic physics in the experiment.

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1.
2.

In doing experiments we are trying

to establish the best values for certain quantities, or
to validate a theory.
We must also give a range of possible true values
based on our limited number of measurements.
Why should repeated measurements of a single
quantity give different values?
Mistakes on the part of the experimenter are
possible, but we do not include these in our
discussion.
A careful researcher should not make mistakes! (Or
at least she or he should recognize them and
correct the mistakes.)
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Accuracy (correctness) & Precision

(number of significant figures)

Uncertainty, error, or deviation

-- the synonymous terms to represent the

variation in measured data.

Two types of errors are possible:

1. Systematic error:
2. Random errors

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Systematic Errors

1.
2.

The result of
A mis-calibrated device, or
A measuring technique which always makes the
measured value larger (or smaller) than the "true"
value.
Example: Using a steel ruler at liquid nitrogen
temperature to measure the length of a rod.
The ruler will contract at low temperatures and
therefore overestimate the true length.
Careful design of an experiment will allow us to
eliminate or to correct for systematic errors.
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Random Errors
These

remaining deviations will be classed

as random errors, and can be dealt with in
a statistical manner.

This

document does not teach statistics in

any formal sense.

But

it should help you to develop a working

methodology for treating errors.
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2. Determining random errors

Several approaches are used to estimate the
uncertainty of a measured quantity.
(a) Instrument Limit of Error (ILE) and Least Count
Least count: the smallest division that is marked on
the instrument.
-- A meter stick will have a least count of 1.0 mm,
-- A digital stop watch might have a least count of 0.01 s.
Instrument

limit of error (ILE):

the precision to which a measuring device can be read,
and is always equal to or smaller than the least count.
-- Very good measuring tools are calibrated against
standards maintained by the National Institute of
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Standards and Technology.
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Instrument Limit of Error, ILE

Be

generally taken to be the least count or some fraction

(1/2, 1/5, 1/10) of the least count.

Which to choose, the least count or half the least count,

or something else.

No hard and fast rules are possible, instead you must be

guided by common sense.

If the space between the scale divisions is large, you may

be comfortable in estimating to 1/5 or 1/10 of the least
count.

If the scale divisions are closer together, you may only be

able to estimate to the nearest 1/2 of the least count, and

if the scale divisions are very close you may only be able
to estimate to the least count.
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For some devices the ILE is given as a tolerance or a

percentage.
-- Resistors may be specified as having a tolerance of 5%,
meaning that the ILE is 5% of the resistor's value.
Problem: For each of the following scales (all in centimeters)
determine the least count, the ILE, and read the length of the
gray rod.

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Least
Count
(cm)

ILE
(cm)

Length
(cm)

(a)

0.2

9.6

(b)

0.5

0.1

8.5

(c)

0.2

0.05

11.90

Problem: to determine the

least count, the ILE, and

read the length of the gray
rod for each of the following
scales (all in centimeters).

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Average Example 1
Problem Find the average, and average deviation
for the 5 following data on the length of a pen, L.
Length (cm)

12.2

0.02

0.0004

12.5

0.28

0.0784

11.9

0.32

0.1024

12.3

0.08

0.0064

12.2

0.02

0.0004

Sum 0.72

Sum 0.1880

Sum

61.1

Average
61.1/5 = 12.22

Average
0.14

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Average Example 2

Problem: Find the average and the average deviation of the

following measurements of a mass.
This time there are N = 6 measurements, so for the standard
deviation we divide by (N-1) = 5.

The mass is
(4.342 + 0.022) g or
(4.34 + 0.02) g
[using average
deviations] or
(4.342 + 0.023) g or
(4.34 + 0.02) g
[using standard
deviations].

Mass
(grams)
4.32

0.0217

0.000471

4.35

0.0083

0.000069

4.31

0.0317

0.001005

4.36

0.0183

0.000335

4.37

0.0283

0.000801

4.34

0.0017

0.000003

0.1100

0.002684

Sum

26.05

Average

Average

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Example
One make several measurements on the mass of an object.
The balance has an ILE of 0.02 grams.
The average mass is 12.14286 grams,
the average deviation is 0.07313 grams.
What is the correct way to write the mass of the object including
its uncertainty? What is the mistake in each incorrect one?
Answer

12.14286 g
(12.14 0.02) g
12.14286 g 0.07313 (lack of unit)
12.143 0.073 g
(12.143 0.073) g
(12.14 0.07)
(12.1 0.1) g
12.14 g 0.07 g

The

correct answer is (12.14 0.07) g.

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For multiplication, division, or

combinations
The same rule holds, namely add all the relative
errors to get the relative error in the result.

z x y

....
z
x
y
2

Using simpler average errors

y
z
x
....


z
x
y

Using standard deviations

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Example
w = (4.52 0.02) cm, x = (2.0 0.2) cm.
Find z = wx and its uncertainty.
(1) z = wx = (4.52) (2.0) = 9.04 cm2
(2) Average error:
z = 0.1044 (9.04 cm2) = 0.944 round to 0.9 cm2,
z = (9.0 0.9) cm2.
(3) Standard deviation: z = 0.905 cm2
z = (9.0 0.9) cm2
The uncertainty is rounded to one significant figure and the
<z> is rounded to match. To write 9.0 cm2 rather than 9 cm2
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since the 0 is significant.
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Example
x = ( 2.0 0.2) cm, y = (3.0 0.6) sec.
Find z = x/y with a dimension of velocity.
(1) z = 2.0/3.0 = 0.6667 cm/s.
(2) Average error:
z = 0.3 (0.6667 cm/sec) = 0.2 cm/sec
(3) Using average error: z = (0.7 0.2) cm/sec
(4) Using standard deviation: z = (0.67 0.15) cm/sec
Note

that in this case we round off our answer to

have no more decimal places than our uncertainty.

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(c) Products of powers: z =xmyn

Using simpler average errors

Using standard deviations

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Example
w = (4.52 0.02) cm, A = (2.0 0.2) cm2, y = (3.0 0.6) cm.,
2

Find z = wy2/A0.5 and z .

wy
z
A

wy 2 4.5 cm (3.02 cm)2

z

28.638 cm 2
A
2.0 cm 2
z
0.2 cm
0.6 cm
0.2 cm 2

2
0.5
0.49
2
2
28.638 cm
4.5 cm
3.0 cm
2.0 cm
The

second relative error, (y/y), is x 2 because y2.

The

third relative error, (A/A), is x 0.5 since xA0.5.

z = 0.49 (28.638 cm2) = 14.03 cm2 rounded to 14 cm2

z = (29 14) cm2 (for AE) or z = (29 12) cm2 (SD)

Because the uncertainty begins with a 1, we keep two
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significant figures and round the answer to match.
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(d) Mixtures of multiplication, division,

addition, subtraction, and powers
-- This is best explained by means of an example.
Example: w=(4.52 0.02)cm, x=(2.0 0.2) cm, y=(3.0 0.6)cm
Find z = w x +y2, z = wx +y2 = 18.0 cm2
Solution:
2.
(1) compute v = wx
to
get
v
=
(9.0

0.9)
cm
2

y
2y 2(0.6 cm)
(2) compute

0.40
2
y
y
3.0 cm

y 2 0.40 9.00 cm 2 3.6 cm 2

(3) compute z = v + (y2) = 0.9 + 3.6 = 4.5 cm2 4 cm2
z = (18 4) cm2 for considering average error.
For standard deviation, to have v = wx = (9.0 0.9) cm 2.
The calculation of the uncertainty in y2 is the same as above.
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get z = 3.7 cm2, z = (18 4) cm2.
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(e) Other Functions: e.g.. z = sin x

The simple approach:
For

other functions of our variables such as

sin(x) we will not give formulae.
However you can estimate the error in z =
sin(x) as being the difference between the
largest possible value and the average value.
Using the similar techniques for other
functions.
z = (sin x) = sin(x + x) - sin(x)
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z = (cos x) = cos(x - x) - cos(x)
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Example
Consider S = wcos() for w = (2.0 0.2) cm, =53 2.
Find S and its uncertainty.
Solution:
(1) S = (2.0 cm)cos 53 = 1.204 cm
(2) To get the largest possible value of S:
make w larger, (w + w) = 2.2 cm, and
smaller, ( - ) = 51.
The largest value of S, namely (S + S), is
(S + S) = (2.2 cm) cos 51 = 1.385 cm.
(3) The difference between these numbers is
S = 1.385 - 1.204 = 0.181 cm round to 0.18 cm.

Result: S = (1.20 0.18) cm

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(f) Other Functions:

Getting formulas using partial derivatives

The general method of getting formulas for propagating errors

involves the total differential of a function.

Suppose that z = f(w, x, y, ...) where the variables w, x, y, etc.

must be independent variables!

The total differential is then

f
f
f
dy ...
dz
dw
dx
w
x
y

Treat the dw = w as the error in w, and likewise for the other

differentials, dz, dx, dy, etc.

The numerical values of the partial derivatives are evaluated by

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using the average values of w, x, y, etc. The general results
are
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The numerical values of the partial derivatives are evaluated

by using the average values of w, x, y, etc.

The general results are

Using simpler average errors

f
f
f
z
w
x
y ...
w
x
y
Using standard deviations
2

f
f
f
2
2
2
y ...
z
w
x
w
x
y
2

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Example
Question: Consider S = xcos () for x = (2.0 0.2) cm,
= (53 2)= (0.9250 0.0035) rad.
Find S and its uncertainty.
Note: the uncertainty in angle must be in radians!
Solution: (1) S = (2.0 cm)(cos 53) = 1.204 cm
(2)
S = (1.20 0.13) cm
(average deviation)

(3)
S = (1.20 0.12) cm
(standard deviation)
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6. Rounding off answers

in regular and scientific notation
A. In regular notation
(1) Be careful to round the answers to an appropriate
number of significant figures.
The uncertainty should be rounded off to one or
two significant figures.
If the leading figure in the uncertainty is a 1, we
use two significant figures,
otherwise we use one significant figure.
(2) Then the answer should be rounded to match.
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Example
Round
Since

off z = 12.0349 cm & z = 0.153 cm.

z begins with a 1

round off z to two significant figures:

z = 0.15 cm
Hence,

round z to have the same number of

decimal places:

z = (12.03 0.15) cm.

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B. In scientific notation

When the answer is given in scientific notation, the

uncertainty should be given in scientific notation
with the same power of ten.

If z = 1.43 x 106 s & z = 2 x 104 s,

The answer should be as

z = (1.43 0.02) x 106 s

This notation makes the range of values most easily

understood.

The following is technically correct, but is hard to

understand at a glance.
z = (1.43 x 106 2 x 104) s. Don't write likePhysicsNTHU
this!
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Problem
Express the following results in proper rounded
form, x x.
(1)

m = 14.34506 grams, m = 0.04251 grams.

(2)

t = 0.02346 sec, t = 1.623 x 10-3 sec.

(3)

M = 7.35 x 1022 kg, M = 2.6 x 1020 kg.

(4)

m = 9.11 x 10-33 kg, m = 2.2345 x 10-33 kg

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Problem
How

many significant figures are there in each

of the following?
(1) 0.00042
(2) 0.14700
(3) 4.2 x 106
(4) -154.090 x 10-27

8. Problems on Uncertainties and Error

Propagation.
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8. Seven Problems on
Uncertainties and Error
Propagation

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