ECOSYSTEM

Dr. KANCHAN DEOLI BAHUKHANDI

UNIVERSITY OF PETROLEM & ENERGY STUDIES

DEHRADUN

ECOLOGY:

The term ecology was first coined by Earnest Haeckel

It was derived from two greek words.
Okios
:
House
Logo
:
Study
Thus Ecology may be defined as study of organism in their
natural house.
It is the branch of botany which deals with study of orgasnism in
their natural habitat.

ECOSYSTEM:

The term ecosystem was first coined by A.G Tansely.

It consist of two Words.
Eco
System

:
:

Environment
Interaction

Thus ecosystem may be defined interaction of all biotic and

abiotic component in environment.
Ecosystem is the major ecological unit. It has both structure and
function .

The structure is related to species diversity. The more

complex is the structure the greater is the diversity of the
species in the ecosystem.

An organism is always in the state of perfect balance with the

environment.
The
environment
literally
means
the
surrounding.

Definition by Odum

According to odum Thus any system that include all the living
organism i.e community in a given area interact with environment so
that flow of energy clearly defined trophic level, biodiversity &
material cycle ( i.e exchange of material between living and non

Characteristics of Ecosystem

Ecosystem is structural and functional unit of Ecology.

Structure of ecosystem related to species diversity. Complex ecosystem has

more species diversity.

Function of ecosystem related to flow of energy and material balance.

The relative amount of energy is needed to maintain the ecosystem.

Complex ecosystem need less energy to maintain the ecosystem.

Young ecosystem developed and change from less complex ecosystem to

more complex ecosystem. This process is known as succession .

Adaptation to local environment is one of the most important feature of biotic

component of Ecosystem.

Principal step of Ecosystem:

1. Reception of energy by producer.
2. Manufacture of organic food by producer.
3. Consumption of organic matter by consumer.
4. Decmposition of organic compound.
5. Transformation of decomposed organic compound into suitable
compound for the nutrition of producer.
Solar Energy ---- Autotrophs------Hetrotrophs
(Chemical Energy)

TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM
1. Natural Ecosystem, 2. Artificial Ecosystem
Natural Ecosystem:
1. Terrestrial Ecosystem, 2. Aquatic Ecosystem
Terrestrial Ecosystem:
a. Forest Ecosystem
b. Grass land Ecosystem
c. Desert ecosystem
AQATIC ECOSYSTEM1. Fresh Water Ecosystem
A) Lotic Ecosystem Running Water

Eg. River, Spring

Forest Ecosystem:
Forest are the natural Plant communities with dominance of flowering plants
Tree, shrubs, flower are present in plenty
In India forest occupy about 18 to 20 % of the total land area.
Forest can be divided into:
1. Tropical Evergreen Forest:

These forest contain a deep and dense vegetation of tall tree.

2.

Tropical deciduous forest

These forest have broad leaved trees growing with shrubs, bushes and
creepers in between them.

3. Temperate deciduous forest

These occur in the area where well defined winters alternative with well defined
summer with sufficient rainfall.

Eg. Maple, elms, oak, peaches etc.

4. Coniferous Forest
These forest found in colder regions The dominant species are fir, pine,
poplar.
A biotic component
1. Inorganic component
Minerals, metals, gases like co2, NO2 , SO2 etc.
2. Organic component
Eg. Fats, glucose, amino acid

Atmospheric component
Climatic component:
1. Temperature, 2. Humidity , 3. Rainfall
2. Wind Velocity 3. Pressure
3. Biotic Component:
PBiotic component consist of living organism represented by producer,
consumer and decomposers
1.

Producers:

Producers are trees of different kind. Besides trees, shrubs & herbs are
also present.
Producers are called autographs which made their food by themselves
in the presence of sunlight , chlorophyll.

Consumer / Hetrotrophs:
Consumer are represented by herbivores, carnivores and omnivores which
are directly or indirectly dependent on producers for their nutrition.
Consumers are further divided into herbivores and carnivores.
Herbivores:
Like ants, flies, beetles, leafhopper feed trees, leaves while larger herbivores are
elephant, deer, ziraaf etc.
Carnivores
Small Carnivores like snake, birds, fox feed on herbivores.
Large Carnivores : Lion & Tiger feed on small carnivores and herbivores.

Decomposers:
A variety of micro organism like bacteria , fungi , protozoa which decompose the dead body of
plant and animal and convert into simpler form.
During decomposition process nutrient , nitrozen and carbon di-oxide gas is
released.
Pond Ecosystem
A pond is a self sufficient and self regulating system
1. Abiotic Component:
Light, heat, pH, water, organic and inorganic compound such as water itself , CO 2 ,
Ca, Mg, K, Fe, P,Na, amino acid, fats, glocose etc.
Biotic component
a) Producers:
Producer forms complex organic substance such as carbohydrates, protein etc

Pond Ecosystem

Macrophytes:
Include mainly rooted larger plant which partially submerged or completely submerged or
floating plants.
Species are trapa, typa, uticularia, chara, hydrilla.

Floating Plant
Azolla, lemna, wolffia spirrodilla
Phytoplankton
Minute floating or suspended lower plants.
Eg. Volvex, diatoms, oscillateria
Consumer
They are hetrotrophs which depend for their nutrition on the organic food
manufactured by producer. Most of the consumers are herbivores a few
insects some large fishes are carnivores feeding on herbivores.

1. Primary consumer:
Feeding on living plants.
a) Benthos
Fish, insects, larvae, beetles & mollucs
b) Zooplankton
These are chiefly rotifers Protozons, Euglena, feed directly on Phytoplankton
Secondary Consumer
Carnivores feed on herbivores . Eg. Fish, Water beetles
Tertiary Consumer : Large fish feed on small fish.
Decomposers:
Known as micro- consumer. Fraction of decomposed dead organic matter of
plant and animal (both producer as well as macro consumer ) into simpler form
They are chiefly bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes

All the ecosystems of earth are connected to one another e.g. river ecosystem
with ecosystem of ocean.
STRUCTURE OF ECOSYSTEM:
The structure of an ecosystem is basically a description of the organism and
physical features of the environment including the amount and distribution of
nutrients in a particular habitat.

It also provides information regarding the range of climatic conditions

prevailing in the area.
From the structural point of view , all ecosystem consist of the following basic
components:

Abiotic component

Biotic component

1. ABIOTIC COMPONENTS:
Ecological relationships are manifested in physiochemical
environment.
Abiotic component of the ecosystem includes basic inorganic
elements
and compounds such as soil, water, oxygen, calcium carbonates,
phosphates and a variety of organic activities or death.
It also includes physical factors and ingredients as moisture,
wind currents and solar radiation.

2. BIOTIC COMPONENTS:
The biotic components include all living organisms present
in the
environmental system.
From nutrition point of view , the biotic components can
be grouped into
two basic components.

1. AUTOTROPHIC COMPONENTS :
It includes all the green plants which fix the radiant energy of
sun and manufacture food from inorganic substances.

2. HETEREROTROPHIC COMPONENTS:
It includes non-green plants and all animals which take food
from
autotrops . So, biotic components of an ecosystem can be
described
under the following three heads.
Producers
Consumers
Decomposers or reducers

a. PRODUCERS:
They use radiant energy of sun in photosynthetic process .
algae and other hydrophytes of a pond, grasses of a field,
trees of the forests are example of producers.
b. CONSUMERS:
Those living members of the ecosystems which consume the
food
synthesized by producers are called consumers.
under this category are included all different kinds of animals
that
found in an ecosystem.
There are different classes of consumers, such as
Consumers of the first order or primary consumers
Consumers of second order or secondary consumers
Consumers of third order or tertiary consumers

I.CONSUMERS OF THE FIRST ORDER OR PRIMARY CONSUMERS:

These are purely herbivorous animals that are purely dependent on
the producers or green plants for their food.
Eg. Insects, rodents, rabbits, deer, cows are some of the
herbivores in the terrestrial ecosystem and small crustaceans
and molluscs in the aquatic habitat.

II.CONSUMERS
OF
CONSUMERS:

SECOND

ORDER

OR

SECONDARY

These are carnivores and omnivores. Carnivores are flesh eating

animals that are adopted to consume herbivores as well as
plants as food.
Examples of secondary consumers are sparrow, crow, fox, wolves ,
dogs, cat and snakes etc.
III.CONSUMERS OF THIRD ORDER OR TERTIARY CONSUMERS:
These are top carnivores which prey upon other carnivores,
omnivores and herbivores. Lions, Tigers, Hawk, vultures etc. are
considered as tertiary or top consumers.
IV.PARASITES, SCAVENGERS:

FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEMS:
An ecosystem is a discrete structural, functional and life sustaining
environmental system.
The environmental system consists of biotic and abiotic components
in a
habitat. Biotic components of the ecosystem include the living
organisms,
plants , animals and microbes.
Whereas the abiotic components includes inorganic matter and
energy.
FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEMS:
Function of ecosystem involve energy flow and this energy comes
from
the sun in the form of light or solar energy.
Thus, in any ecosystem we have the following functional
components.

Thus the principal steps in the operation of ecosystem are

follows:
Reception of the radiant energy of the sun
Manufacture of organic materials from inorganic ones by
producers

Consumptions of producers by consumers and further elaboration of

consumed materials and
After the death of living producers and consumers, complex organic
compounds are degraded and finally converted by decomposers and
converts into such forms that are suitable for the utilization by producers.

It is clear that there is transfer of both energy and nutrients from

producers to consumers and finally to decomposers and transformers
level.
In this transfer there is progressive decrease of energy.
FOOD CHAIN:
The simple chain of eating and being eaten in an ecosystem is known as
food chain.
The transfer of food energy from the source in plants through a series of
Organisms (herbivores to carnivores, carnivores to decomposers) that
consume and are being consumed is called the food chain.
In each transfer some energy is lost Therefore the shorter the food chain
the greater the energy available to that population.
IN any food chain the energy flow from primary producer to primary
consumers to secondary consumers (Carnivores), from secondary
consumers to tertiary consumers (carnivores/omnivores).

Food chains are of two basic types:

1. THE GRAZING FOOD CHAIN:
This type of food chain starts from the green plant base goes to grazing
herbivores and on carnivores.
This types of food chain are diretly dependent on influx of solar radiation.
Example :
Phytoplankton--------- Zooplankton------Fish----------Man
Grass ----Grasshopper-----------------Frog---------------Sanke--------Hawk
Grass-----Rabbit --------Fox ----------------Tiger
2. THE DETRITUS FOOD CHAIN :
IT start from dead organic matter and goes to detritus feeding organism
(detrivores) and on to their predator.
Detrivores are the consumers of dead organic matter. For Ex. Bacteria, Soil
Mites, worms and fungi of decay.
Leaf litter algae Crab Small carnivores Fish Large Carnivores Fish
(Mangroves ecosystem)
Dead organic matter Fungi Bacteria . .> protozoa > Rotifers ( Forest

 This types of food chain chiefly depend on the influx organic matter produced in another system. Such
ecosystem are mangroves, estuaries which are less dependent on direct solar radiation.
A large quantity of leaf material falls in the form of litter into the water. The fllen leaves are colonized by small
algae, which are also consumed by the saprotrophs or detritivores consisting of carbs, mollusks, shrimp ,
insect larvae, nematodes and fishes, which in turn are eaten by large carnivores fishes.
Thus the grazing food chain derives its energy basically from plant energy while in the detritus
food chain it is obtained primarily from plant biomass, secondarily from microbial biomass and
tertiary from carnivores.

In a food chain ,there is repeated eating in which each group eats the smaller one and is eaten by the larger one
In a food chain there is unidirectional flow of energy from sun to producer and then series of consumers .
Usually 80-90% of potential energy is lost as a heat at each transfer.
Usually there are 4-5 trophic levels in the food chain ,shorter food chain will provided greater energy.
a food chain is always straight .
Omnivores generally occupy more than 1 trophic level in a food chain .

Example of a Food Chain

Food Web
In ecosystem some consumers feed on a single species
, but most consumers have multiple food sources. As a
result individual food chains become interconnected to
form a Food Web
A food web is a complicated system of relationships
between plants, animals, and energy.
All food chains are interconnected with each other
forming some interlocking pattern known as food web.
Food web is the network of food chains where different
types of organisms are connected at different trophic
levels ,so that option of eating and being eaten at each
trophic level.

Food Webs

All the food chains in an area make up the food web of the area.

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID:
The use of ecological pyramids was advanced by C.E. Elton
( 1927).
There are different types of ecological pyramids . In each ecological
pyramid, producer levels forms the base and successive level makes up
the apex.
The trophic structure and function of an ecosystem can be
indicated by means of ecological pyramid where producer
constitute the base of pyramid and top carnivores making apex.
At each step in the food chain , a considerable portion of the
potential energy is lost as heat.
As a result , organism in each trophic level pass on lesser energy
to the next trophic level than they actually receive.
Three types of pyramidal relations may be found among the organisms at
different levels in the ecosystem. These are as follows:
Pyramid of numbers
Pyramid of biomass

1. PYRAMID OF NUMBERS:
It depicts the numbers of individuals in producers and in
different
orders of consumers in an ecosystem.
The base of pyramid is represented by producers which are the
most
abundant and in the successive levels of consumers , the number
of
organisms goes on decreasing rapidly until there are few
carnivores.
2. Pyramid of biomass : It depict the relationship between
producers and consumers in term of their total dry weight.
The pyramid of biomass can also be upright and inverted.
3. Pyramid of Energy :
It depict the relationship between producers and consumers in
term of energy flow in an ecosystem. It is based on 10% law
of energy . Therefore the pyramid of energy is always upright.

Energy Flow and Nutrient

Cycling
1. Nearly all ecosystems are dependent upon solar energy flow and finite pools
of nutrients.
2. Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and sulfur make up nearly
all life.
3. Energy flow in an ecosystem is a consequence of two fundamental laws of
thermodynamics:
a. First law of thermodynamics states energy can neither be created nor
destroyed; it can only be changed
from one form of energy to another
b. Second law of thermodynamics: when energy is transformed from one
form to another, there is always
some loss of energy from the system, usually as low grade heat.

10 % Law of Energy

About 10% of energy at a particular trophic levels incorporated into the next trophic
level.

According to 10% Law , only 10% energy is avaiable for the

transfer to the next trophic level, rest of 90% lost in form of
heat in an environment.
The energy lost in excretion, respiration .

a. Thus, 1,000 kg (or kcal in an energy pyramid) of plant material converts to 100 kg of
herbivore tissue, which converts to 10 kg of first carnivores, which can support 1 kg of
second level carnivores.
a. This rapid loss of energy is the reason food chains have from three to four links, rarely
five.
a. This rapid loss of energy is also the reason there are few large carnivores.

Global Biogeochemical Cycles

1. Biogeochemical cycles are the circulation pathways of elements (e.g.,
carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen
or mineral elements) through the biotic and a biotic components of an
ecosystem.
1. A reservoir is that portion of the earth that acts as a storehouse for the
element.
3. An exchange pool is the portion of the environment from which producers
take chemicals, such as the
atmosphere or soil.
4. The biotic community is the pathway (i.e., food chains) through which
chemicals move.
5. Some cycles are primarily gaseous cycles (carbon and nitrogen); others are
sedimentary cycles, (phosphorus

The Hydrologic (Water) Cycle

1.

In the hydrologic cycle, freshwater evaporates and condenses on the

earth.

2. Evaporation of water from the oceans leaves behind salts.

3. Rainfall that permeates the earth forms a water table at the surface of the
ground water.
4. An aquifer is an underground storage of fresh water in porous rock trapped
by impervious rock
5. Freshwater makes up about 3 percent of the world's supply of water and is a
renewable resource.
6. Freshwater becomes unavailable when consumption exceeds supply or is
polluted so it is not usable.

. The Carbon Cycle

The carbon cycle is the set of biogeochemical processes by which
carbon undergoes chemical reactions, changes form, and moves through
different reservoirs on earth, including living organisms.
The geological component of the carbon cycle is driven by plate tectonics and
includes processes like volcanic eruptions and burial of carbon-rich sediments on
the ocean floor.
The biological component of the carbon cycle is driven by respiration and
photosynthesis by living organisms.
Humans influence the global carbon cycle in several ways, but primarily through
burning fossil fuels.
Terrestrial and aquatic organisms exchange carbon dioxide with the atmosphere.
Photosynthesis removes CO2 from atmosphere; respiration and combustion add CO2 to atmosphere.
CO2 from the air combines with water to produce bicarbonate (HCO3), which is a source of carbon for
aquatic producers, primarily algae.
Similarly, when aquatic organisms respire, the CO2 they release combines with water to form HCO3.

4.

The reservoir for the carbon cycle is largely composed of organic matter, calcium
carbonate in shells, and limestone, as well as fossil fuels.

The Nitrogen Cycle

()

The nitrogen cycle is the process by which nitrogen is converted between its various
chemical forms. Nitrogen gas (N2) is 78% of the atmosphere,.

This transformation can be carried out via both

1. Non biological : fixation occurs in lightning strikes,

2. biological processes : fixation is done by free-living or symbiotic bacteria.

some symbiotic bacteria (most often associated with leguminous plants) and some freeliving bacteria are able to fix nitrogen as organic nitrogen. An example of mutualistic
nitrogen fixing bacteria are the Rhizobium bacteria, which live in legume root nodules
Nitrogen is present in the environment in a wide variety of chemical forms including
organic nitrogen, ammonium (NH4+), nitrite (NO2-), nitrate (NO3-), and nitrogen gas
(N2).
2. In the nitrogen cycle, plants cannot incorporate N2 into organic compounds and therefore
depend on various types of bacteria to make nitrogen available to them.

c. Other nitrogen-fixing bacteria, living in nodules on the roots of legumes,

make reduced nitrogen and organic compounds available to the host plant.
Nitrification
The conversion of ammonium to nitrate is performed primarily by soilliving bacteria and other nitrifying bacteria.
Denitrification
Denitrification is the reduction of nitrates back into the largely inert nitrogen
gas (N2), completing the nitrogen cycle. This process is performed by
bacterial species such as Pseudomonas
Ammonification
When a plant or animal dies, or an animal expels waste, the initial form of
nitrogen is organic. Bacteria, or fungi in some cases, convert the organic
nitrogen within the remains back into ammonium (NH 4+), a process called
ammonification or mineralization.

b. Nitrogen gas is converted to NO3- in the atmosphere when cosmic radiation,

meteor trails, and lightning provide the high energy for nitrogen to react with
oxygen.
c. Nitrifying bacteria convert NH4+ to NO3-.
d. Ammonium in the soil is converted to NO3- by nitrifying bacteria in the soil in
a two-step process:
1) First, nitrite-producing bacteria convert NH4+ to nitrite (NO3-).
2) 2) Then, nitrate-producing bacteria convert NO2 - to NO3-.

e. Denitrification is conversion of NO3- to nitrous oxide (N2O) and N2.

f. There are denitrifying bacteria in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.
g. Denitrification counterbalances nitrogen fixation, but not completely; more
nitrogen fixation occurs.
h. Humans contribute much to the nitrogen cycle when they convert N2 to
ammonium and urea in fertilizers.
i. Eutrophication (over enrichment) results from fertilizer runoff; when rampant
algae dies off, decomposers use up available oxygen during cellular
respiration, and this results in a massive fish kill.

Nitrogen and Air Pollution

a. Production of fertilizers and burning of fossil fuels adds three times the
nitrogen oxides to the
atmosphere as normal
b. Acid deposition occurs when nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides combine
with water vapor.
c. Photochemical smog results when nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons react
in presence of sunlight;
smog contains ozone and peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN) and causes respiratory
problems.
d. Air pollutants are trapped near the ground by thermal inversions where cold
air is trapped near the ground by warm air above.

The Phosphorus Cycle

1. In phosphorus cycle, weathering makes phosphate ions (PO4 and HPO4 2-) available to plants
from the soil.
2. 2. Some phosphate runs off into aquatic ecosystems where algae incorporate it into organic
molecules.
3. Phosphate that is not taken up by algae is incorporated into sediments in the oceans.
4. Sediment phosphate only becomes available when geological upheaval exposes sedimentary
rocks.
5. Phosphate taken up by producers is incorporated into a variety of organic compounds.
6. Animals eat producers and incorporate some of phosphate into long-lasting teeth, bones, and
shells.
7. Decay of organisms and decomposition of animal wastes makes phosphate ions available again.
8. Available phosphate is generally taken up quickly; it is usually a limiting nutrient in most
ecosystems.

. Phosphorus and Water Pollution

1. Humans boost the supply of phosphate by mining phosphate ores for fertilizers, detergents,
etc.

2. Run-off of animal wastes from livestock feedlots and commercial fertilizers from cropland as
well discharge of untreated and treated municipal sewage can all add excess phosphate to
nearby waters.
3. Eutrophication is the name of this over-enrichment and can lead to algal blooms; when the
algae die off, decomposers use up the oxygen.
4. Biological magnification is the concentration of chemicals as they move up the food chain.

5. Oil spills add over 5 million metric tons of oil a year to oceans.
6. Human activities including fishing have exploited ocean resources to the brink of extinction.

Consumers are further divided into herbivores and carnivores.

Herbivores:
Like ants, flies, beetles, leafhopper feed trees, leaves while larger herbivores are
elephant, deer etc.
Carnivores
Small Carnivores like snake, birds, fox feed on herbivores.
Large Carnivores : Lion & Tiger feed on small carnivores and herbivores Consumers
are further divided into herbivores and carnivores.s

Ecological succession
Is defined as an orderly process of
changes in community structure and
function with time mediated through
modifications in the physical environment
and ultimately culminating in a stabilized
ecosystem known as climax

Process

Nudation
Invasion
Competition and coaction
Reaction
Stabilization

Hydrosere

Free floating stage ( pioneer )

Rooted floating stage
reed swamp stage
Sedge meadow stage
Woodland stage
Forest ( climax)

Xerosere

Lichen ( pioneer)
Mosses
Herbs
Shrubs
Forest ( climax)