Nursing Research 63-377

Dr. Wally J. Bartfay

Anyone who has never

made a mistake has never
tried anything new
(Albert Einstein, 1879-1955)

Review Quiz: True of False?

1. Research questions are qualitative in nature only?

2. Hypotheses can be both quantitative & qualitative
in nature?
3. Hypotheses are never proved through
hypothesis testing; rather they are accepted or
supported?
4. A non-directional hypothesis specifies the
expected direction or nature of a hypothesized
relationship?
5. A research question guides the type of data to be
collected by the investigator?

Theory in Research
Is

a set of interrelated concepts (building

blocks) that structure a systemic view of
phenomena for the purpose of explaining or
predicting outcomes
Like a blueprint which provides a guide for
modeling a structure or building, what goes
where & how does everything fit together
(bricks, pipes, electrical, heating, etc)

Theory in Research

Is a set of interrelated concepts that provides a

systematic view of phenomenon
Guides practice & research
Practice allows testing of theory & generates ?s for
research
Research contributes to theory-building &
establishing practice guidelines
Hence, what is learned through practice, theory &
research interweaves to create knowledge fabric of
the discipline of nursing

Relationships Between Theory,

Practice & Research
Theory

Nursing
Research

Practice

Traditional Types of Theories

(1) Grand or macro-theories attempt to describe &

explain large segments of phenomenon (e.g., chaos
theory, theory of evolution, Rogers, Orems,
Newmans)(2) Middle-range are more narrow/ restricted in
scope (e.g., decision-making, self-care deficits,
infant bonding)
(3) Micro-range link concrete concepts into a
statement that can be examined in practice &
research (hypotheses are examples here)

Conceptual Models/ Frameworks

Are

symbolic representations of a set of

concepts (building blocks of theories e.g.,
health, anxiety, QOL, CGB, adaptation) &
their proposed relationships

Conceptual Models/ Frameworks: An example

Agent

Host

Chain of Infection
Environment
Proposed relationships depicting 3 necessary concepts
for chain of infection

Conceptual Models/ Frameworks:

Rules of Thumb
When

researchers used quantitative inquiry

& deductive reasoning, often appears at
beginning of paper before discussion
When researchers use qualitative inquiry &
inductive reasoning, often appears at the end
of the paper in discussion section

Schematic Models
Are

common in both qualitative & quantitative

research
They represent phenomena graphically
Concepts & how they are linked are
represented by arrows, symbols, boxes etc
Useful in clarifying associations among
concepts

Statistical Models
Used

in quantitative studies
Use symbols to express quantitatively the
nature of relationships between defined
variables
Each concept/ term in model is quantifiable
Statistical models where probability is used
to describe/ explain & predict outcomes

Critiquing Criteria For Theories,

Conceptual Models & Frameworks

(1) Is it clearly identified & transparent to the reader?

(2) Is it consistent with a nursing perspective?
(3) Is it appropriate to guide the research question(s)
of interest?
(4) Are concepts/ variables clearly defined?
(5) Are the links consistent with concepts being
studied and the methods of measurements?
(6) Are the results (data, findings) examined &
interpreted employing these theories, conceptual
models or frameworks?

Design in quantitative research

Word

implies the organization of elements

into a masterful work of art
It describes the basic strategies that will be
employed to address research ?(s)

Research Design
Hypotheses

Research ?s

Review of
Literature

Theoretical
Framework

Research Design

Interrelationships of review of lit., research ?s, hypotheses, research

Theoretical framework & research design

Element of Control
Defined

as measures used to hold conditions

of study uniform
Process of holding constant possible
influences on the dependent variable or
outcome
It is established by ruling-out extraneous or
mediating variables that compete with the
independent variable as possible explanation
for achieved outcome

Ways to control for extraneous

variables

Are variables that interfere with operation of the

phenomena being studied (e.g., age & gender, other
chronic disease conditions present)
Use homogeneous sample (e.g., menopausal
women aged 55 to 60 years of age, avoid messy
samples)
Manipulation of independent variable
Randomization helps to eliminate bias & aids in
attainment of a representative sample

Threats to Internal Validity

Asks whether the independent variable really made

difference or change to dependent variable
History: Another specific event that may effect
outcomes (e.g., media reports on star with breast
CA, so breast-self exams increase)
Maturation: refers to developmental, biological or
psychological processes that operate within a
subject as a function of time & are external to events
of study (e.g., study to examine effects of vit. E on
preventing cat. in eyes, where age of subject is a
threat)

Threats to Internal Validity

Testing:

(e.g., effect of taking a pre-test may

sensitize subject & improve post-test results)
Instrumentation: (e.g., researcher wants to
compare tympanic, digital & electronic
thermometers to accuracy of mercury-typeneed to check calibration specs pre and
post)

Threats to Internal Validity

Mortality:

loss of study subjects after baseline

measures established
Selection bias: (e.g., subjects who want to
enter into smoking cessation program, help
to avoid by randomization)

Threats to External Validity

Deals

with possible problems of

generalizability of findings/ outcomes to
additional populations (e.g., study involved
IDDM, can you generalize to NIDDM?)
Selection effects (sample in study was too
small to generate statistically significant
conclusion- issue of power)

Threats to External Validity

Reactive effects: defined as subjects responses to

being studied
Known as Hawthorne Effect (Western Electric
Corporation study on working conditions)
Here, researchers examined various Rx. Effects
(e.g., turning up or down lights, piping in loud/ soft
music, changing working hours etc)
No matter what researcher did, workers productivity
increased
Conclusion, workers productivity increased b/c they
were being studied

Threats to External Validity

Measurement

effects: administration of pretest in study affects generalizability of

findings to other populations (e.g., attitudes
towards AIDS in general where researcher
examines effects of AIDS education program
that deals with risk factors associated with
AIDS)

Quantitative Research Designs

(1)

Exploratory or Formative: to gain new

insights, discover new ideas & increase
knowledge about a phenomenon (usually
conducted when little is known about a topic)
(2) Descriptive: Structured observations or ?
s or both are used to describe a
phenomenon, situation, group or
characteristic

Quantitative Research Designs

(3) Correlational: primary intent is to explain the

nature of the proposed relationship(s)
(4) Experimental: Can be used to test cause & effect
relationships & serves as basis of prediction: Must
have following criteria:
(a) manipulation of treatment variable
(b) control of one or more constants into the
experimental situation (e.g., temperature, Dx)
(c) random selection & inclusion of subjects

Quantitative Research Designs

(5)

Quasi-experimental: lacks one or more

criteria for a true experiment
(6) Evaluative: tests how well a program,
practice or policy is working

Mark down these dates for Dr. Nancy Edwards,

Visiting Nursing Research Scholar: November 1st
10 to 11 am Need for nursing research:
Dissemination & uptake of research evidence HEC
room 104
3- 4 pm: Seminar/ workshop: Developing research
teams & programs of research HEC room 203
4 to 5 pm: Major public talk: HEC room 203
Have a great week!!!