David M.

Bressoud
Macalester College, St. Paul, MN
Project NExT-WI, October 5, 2006

The task of the educator is

to make the childs spirit
pass again where its
forefathers have gone,
moving rapidly through
certain stages but
suppressing none of them. In
this regard, the history of
science must be our guide.
Henri Poincar

1. Cauchy and uniform convergence

2. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
3. The HeineBorel Theorem

1. Cauchy and uniform convergence

2. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
3. The HeineBorel Theorem
A Radical Approach to Real Analysis,
2nd edition due January, 2007
A Radical Approach to Lebesgues Theory of
Integration, due December, 2007

What Weierstrass Cantor

did was very good. That's
the way it had to be done.
But whether this corresponds
to what is in the depths of
our consciousness is a very
different question

Nikolai Luzin

 I cannot but see a stark

contradiction between the
intuitively clear fundamental
formulas of the integral
calculus and the
incomparably artificial and
complex work of the
justification and their
proofs.

Nikolai Luzin

Cauchy, Cours danalyse, 1821

explanations drawn from algebraic

technique cannot be considered, in my
opinion, except as heuristics that will
sometimes suggest the truth, but which
accord little with the accuracy that is so
praised in the mathematical sciences.

Niels Abel (1826):

Cauchy is crazy, and there is no way of

getting along with him, even though right
now he is the only one who knows how
mathematics should be done. What he is
doing is excellent, but very confusing.

Cauchy, Cours danalyse, 1821, p. 120

Theorem 1. When the terms of a series are functions of
a single variable x and are continuous with respect to
this variable in the neighborhood of a particular value
where the series converges, the sum S(x) of the series is
also, in the neighborhood of this particular value, a
continuous function of x.

S x

Sn x

Sn x

Scontinuousataifcanforce S(x) S(a)

assmallaswewishbyrestricting x

Sn x

Scontinuousataifcanforce S(x) S(a)

assmallaswewishbyrestricting x
S x

Abel, 1826:

It appears to me that this

theorem suffers exceptions.

sin x

Sn x

Scontinuousataifcanforce S(x) S(a)

assmallaswewishbyrestricting x
S x

x depends on n

n depends on x

If even Cauchy can

make a mistake like this,
how am I supposed to
know what is correct?

What is the Fundamental

Theorem of Calculus?
Why is it fundamental?

TheFundamentalTheoremofCalculus(evaluationpart):

F' x
Ifthen
f x

Differentiate then Integrate = original fcn (up to constant)

TheFundamentalTheoremofCalculus(antiderivativepart):

d
Iffiscontinuous,then
dt

f x

Integrate then Differentiate = original fcn

TheFundamentalTheoremofCalculus(evaluationpart):

F' x
Ifthen
f x ion

t
a
i
t
n
e
r
t
e

f
f
n
i
Differentiate then Integrate = d
original
fcn
(up
to
constant)
s
d
i
t
u
n
?
b
a
n
,
s
n
o
i
t
e
o
i
s
t
a
r
s
a
r
g
e
TheFundamentalTheoremofCalculus(antiderivativepart):
g
e
c
t
e
o
t
n
r
i
n
p
i
f
,
o
e
.
s
e
n
r
.
I
o d
e
i
t
v
i
n
n
i
i
f
f x
Iffiscontinuous,then
e
e
r

d
a

e
dt
h
t
this
Integrate then Differentiate = original fcn

Simon Poisson

1820, The fundamental

proposition of the
theory of definite
integrals:

F' x
Ifthen

f x

Simon Poisson

1820, The fundamental

proposition of the
theory of definite
integrals:

F' x
Ifthen

f x

Definite integral, defined as difference of

antiderivatives at endpoints, is sum of
products, f(x) times infinitesimal dx.

Cauchy, 1823, first explicit

definition of definite integral as
limit of sum of products

f x

mentions the fact that

d
dt

f x

en route to his definition of

the indefinite integral.

Earliest reference to
Fundamental Theorem of
the Integral Calculus is by
Paul du Bois-Reymond
(1880s). Popularized in
English by E. W. Hobson:
The Theory of Functions of
a Real Variable, 1907

Granville (w/ Smith)

Differential and Integral
Calculus (starting with
1911 ed.), FTC:
definite integral can be
used to evaluate a limit
of a sum of products.
William A. Granville

The real FTC:

There are two distinct ways of viewing
integration:
As a limit of a sum of products (Riemann
sum),
As the inverse process of differentiation.
The power of calculus comes precisely from
their equivalence.

Riemanns habilitation of 1854:

ber die Darstellbarkeit einer
Function durch eine
trigonometrische Reihe

Purpose of Riemann integral:

1. To investigate how discontinuous a function can be
and still be integrable. Can be discontinuous on a
dense set of points.
2. To investigate when an unbounded function can still
be integrable. Introduce improper integral.

Riemannsfunction:

f x

x
Atthefunctionjumpsby
8b 2

TheFundamentalTheoremofCalculus(antiderivativepart):

d
Iffiscontinuous,then
dt

f x

Integrate then Differentiate = original fcn

This part of the FTC does not hold at
points where f is not continuous.

TheFundamentalTheoremofCalculus(evaluationpart):

F' x
Ifthen
f x

Differentiate then Integrate = original fcn (up to constant)

Volterra, 1881, constructed

function with bounded
derivative that is not Riemann
integrable.

Vito Volterra

F x

F x

F' x

lim

Perfectset:equalsitssetoflimitpoints
Nowheredense:everyintervalcontains
subintervalwithnopointsoftheset
Nonempty,nowheredense,perfectset
describedbyH.J.S.Smith,1875

Perfectset:equalsitssetoflimitpoints
Nowheredense:everyintervalcontains
subintervalwithnopointsoftheset
Nonempty,nowheredense,perfectset
describedbyH.J.S.Smith,1875
Then by Vito Volterra, 1881

Perfectset:equalsitssetoflimitpoints
Nowheredense:everyintervalcontains
subintervalwithnopointsoftheset
Nonempty,nowheredense,perfectset
describedbyH.J.S.Smith,1875
Then by Vito Volterra, 1881
Finally by Georg Cantor,
1883

Perfectset:equalsitssetoflimitpoints
Nowheredense:everyintervalcontains
subintervalwithnopointsoftheset
Nonempty,nowheredense,perfectset
describedbyH.J.S.Smith,1875

s
t
e
S
C
V
S
Then by Vito Volterra, 1881
Finally by Georg Cantor,
1883

Volterrasconstruction:

Startwiththefunction F x

Restricttotheinterval[0,1/8],exceptfindthelargestvalueof
xonthisintervalatwhichF'(x)=0,andkeepFconstantfrom
thisvalueallthewaytox=1/8.

Volterrasconstruction:
Totherightofx=1/8,takethemirrorimageofthis
function:for1/8<x<1/4,andoutsideof[0,1/4],define
f1 x
thisfunctiontobe0.Callthisfunction.

Nowweslidethisfunctionoversothattheportionthat
isnotidentically0isintheinterval[3/8,5/8],that
middlepieceoflength1/4takenoutoftheSVCset.

Wedothesamethingfortheinterval[0,1/16].

f2 x
Weslideonecopyofintoeachintervalof
length1/16thatwasremovedfromtheSVCset.

Volterrasfunction,Vsatisfies:
1. Visdifferentiableateveryx,V'is
bounded.
2. ForainSVCset,V'(a)=0,butthereare
pointsarbitrarilyclosetoawherethe
derivativeis+1,1.
V'isnotRiemannintegrableon[0,1]

TheFundamentalTheoremofCalculus(evaluationpart):

F' x
Ifthen
f x

Differentiate then Integrate = original fcn (up to constant)

Volterra, 1881, constructed

function with bounded
derivative that is not Riemann
integrable.

Vito Volterra

FTC does hold if we restrict f

to be continuous or if we use
the Lebesgue integral and F is
absolutely continuous.

Lessons:
1. Riemanns definition is not intuitively natural.
Students think of integration as inverse of
differentiation. Cauchy definition is easier to
comprehend.

Lessons:
1. Riemanns definition is not intuitively natural.
Students think of integration as inverse of
differentiation. Cauchy definition is easier to
comprehend.
2. Emphasize FTC as connecting two very different
ways of interpreting integration. Go back to
calling it the Fundamental Theorem of Integral
Calculus.

Lessons:
1. Riemanns definition is not intuitively natural.
Students think of integration as inverse of
differentiation. Cauchy definition is easier to
comprehend.
2. Emphasize FTC as connecting two very different
ways of interpreting integration. Go back to
calling it the Fundamental Theorem of Integral
Calculus.
3. Need to let students know that these
interpretations of integration really are different.

HeineBorel Theorem

Eduard Heine
18211881

Any open cover of a

closed and bounded set
of real numbers has a
finite subcover.

mile Borel
18711956

HeineBorel Theorem

Eduard Heine
18211881

Any open cover of a

closed and bounded set
of real numbers has a
finite subcover.

mile Borel
18711956

Due to Lebesgue, 1904; stated and proven by

Borel for countable covers, 1895; Heine had
very little to do with it.
P. Dugac, Sur la correspondance de Borel
Arch. Int. Hist. Sci.,1989.

1852, Dirichlet proves that a

continuous function on a
closed, bounded interval is
uniformly continuous.
The proof is very similar to Borel and
Lebesgues proof of HeineBorel.

1872, Heine reproduces this proof without

attribution to Dirichlet in Die Elemente der
Functionenlehre

1872, Heine reproduces this proof without

attribution to Dirichlet in Die Elemente der
Functionenlehre

Weierstrass,1880, if a series converges

uniformly in some open neighborhood of
every point in [a,b], then it converges
uniformly over [a,b].

1872, Heine reproduces this proof without

attribution to Dirichlet in Die Elemente der
Functionenlehre

Weierstrass,1880, if a series converges

uniformly in some open neighborhood of
every point in [a,b], then it converges
uniformly over [a,b].
Pincherle,1882, if a function is bounded in
some open neighborhood of every point in
[a,b], then it is bounded over [a,b].

Harnack, 1885, considered the question of

the measure of an arbitrary set.
Considered and rejected the possibility of
using countable collection of open intervals.

Axel Harnack
18511888

Harnack, 1885, considered the question of

the measure of an arbitrary set.
Considered and rejected the possibility of
using countable collection of open intervals.
Considerinterval 0,1

Axel Harnack
18511888

Harnack, 1885, considered the question of

the measure of an arbitrary set.
Considered and rejected the possibility of
using countable collection of open intervals.
Considerinterval 0,1

Axel Harnack
18511888

Harnack assumed that the complement of a countable union

of intervals is a countable union of intervals, in which case
the answer is YES.

Harnack, 1885, considered the question of

the measure of an arbitrary set.
Considered and rejected the possibility of
using countable collection of open intervals.
Considerinterval 0,1

Axel Harnack
18511888

Harnack assumed that the complement of a countable union

of intervals is a countable union of intervals, in which case
the answer is YES.
Cantors set: 1883

Borel, 1895 (doctoral thesis, 1894),

problem of analytic continuation
across a boundary on which lie a
countable dense set of poles

Equivalentproblem: rn

If x

Needtoknowthereisan

Arthur Schnflies, 1900, claimed Borels result

also holds for uncountable covers, pointed out
connection to Heines proof of uniform continuity.
First to call this the HeineBorel theorem.

Arthur Schnflies, 1900, claimed Borels result

also holds for uncountable covers, pointed out
connection to Heines proof of uniform continuity.
First to call this the HeineBorel theorem.
1904, Henri Lebesgue to Borel, Heine says
nothing, nothing at all, not even remotely, about
your theorem. Suggests calling it the Borel
Schnflies theorem. Proves the Schnflies claim
that it is valid for uncountable covers.

Arthur Schnflies, 1900, claimed Borels result

also holds for uncountable covers, pointed out
connection to Heines proof of uniform continuity.
First to call this the HeineBorel theorem.
1904, Henri Lebesgue to Borel, Heine says
nothing, nothing at all, not even remotely, about
your theorem. Suggests calling it the Borel
Schnflies theorem. Proves the Schnflies claim
that it is valid for uncountable covers.
Paul Montel and Giuseppe Vitali try to change designation
to BorelLebesgue. Borel in Leons sur la Thorie des
Fonctions calls it the first fundamental theorem of measure
theory.

Lessons:
1. HeineBorel is far less intuitive than other
equivalent definitions of completeness.

Lessons:
1. HeineBorel is far less intuitive than other
equivalent definitions of completeness.
2. In fact, HeineBorel can be counter-intuitive.

Lessons:
1. HeineBorel is far less intuitive than other
equivalent definitions of completeness.
2. In fact, HeineBorel can be counter-intuitive.
3. HeineBorel lies at the root of Borel (and thus,
Lebesgue) measure. This is the moment at
which it is needed. Much prefer Borels name:
First Fundamental Theorem of Measure
Theory.

This PowerPoint presentation is available at

www.macalester.edu/~bressoud/talks
A draft of A Radical Approach to Lebesgues
Theory of Integration is available at
www.macalester.edu/~bressoud/books