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Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Introduction
Survey References
Surveying Tools
More Surveying Terms
Quality Controls
Surveying Calculations
TRC
Section 1
Introduction
A Surveyors Job
There are worse jobs!
Inclination
200
Direction
Direction
Quadrant
Number from 0 to 90
measured east or west
of north or south
e.g., S40W
Older system
Azimuth
Most common
Number from 0 to 360
degrees, measured
clockwise from North
e.g., 220
30
30
60
60
E90
90W
60
60
30
S
N
330
300
30
30
60
E90
270W
240
210
S
180
120
150
Map Projections
A good approximation of the shape
of the earth is that of a spheroid
(flattened sphere)
The location of a point on a
spheroid can be described by two
angles.
Latitude is the angle between a line
joining the point to the center of the
spheroid and the equatorial plane.
Longitude is the angle between a
plane containing the point and the
axis of rotation and another plane
containing an arbitrary reference
point and the axis of rotation.
Polar flattening
Longitude
Lines of Longitude are lines
drawn through the north and
south poles, and are called
meridians.
They measure distance east
and west of the prime meridian
which was established near
Greenwich, England.
The prime meridian is the 00
line. Longitude measures 00 to
1800 east and 00 to 1800 west
Eastern and western
hemispheres meet at1800 the
International Date Line
Latitude
Lines of latitude are
drawn around the
earth parallel to the
Equator. They are
called parallels.
They are equally
spaced in degrees not
miles.
The equator is 00 and
the poles are 900.
Position
Latitude lines are
typically shown for
every 10 degrees,
starting at the
equator; the longitude
lines are shown for
every 15 degrees,
starting at the prime
meridian.
What is the position at
the green dot?
Answer:
Answer:
20N
20N
45E
45E
Map Projections
A map projection is used to portray all or part of
the round Earth on a flat surface. This cannot be
done without some distortion.
Every projection has its own set of advantages
and disadvantages. There is no "best" projection.
The mapmaker must select the one best suited
to the needs, reducing distortion of the most
important features.
Map Projections
Different kinds Mercator, Conic,
Polyconic, Lambert's Conformal
Mercator based on a cylinder, only true
at equator, useful for navigators
Lambert's maps used by military and basis
of US Aeronautical charts.
Conic Projection
Lambert Conformal Conic map is made by
projecting the globe onto a cone.
"Conformal" means that this map represents the
shape of limited areas accurately
Used to show parts of globe that run east west at
middle latitudes e.g. United States
Mercator Projection
Mercator map is very common
For areas close to equator, map accurately
represents the shape.
Badly distorts landmass at the poles Alaska
looks size of South America actually South
America is 11 times bigger than Alaska
Transverse Mercator
Projection
Similar to Mercator but orientation of cylinder is
different
Used by USGS for quadrangle maps
Universal Transverse Mercator UTM is a series of
60 Mercator projections each covering 60 of
longitude.
Section 2
Survey References
Borehole Survey
References
All measurements must be tied to fixed
reference systems
Depth References
Inclination References
Azimuth References
Depth References
Measured Depth
Distance measured along
actual course of borehole
from surface to survey
point. Pipe tally or
wireline depth counter.
RKB
While drilling it is convenient
to use the top of the rotary
table as the working depth
reference. This is called
Rotary Kelly Bushing (RKB)
Offshore, mean sea level
(MSL) is sometimes used
On floating rigs, a mean RKB
is used
RKB
Inclination Reference
Inclination is the angle
between vertical and
the tangent to the well
bore axis at a particular
point
Convention is 00 is
vertical 900 is horizontal
Inclination may be >90
for some horizontal
wells
Sometimes called Drift
Azimuth References
Three systems
Magnetic North
True (Geographic) North
Grid North
True North
True North: Is a line from any
point of the earth's surface to
the geographic north pole. All
lines of longitude are true north.
True north is depicted in the
declination diagram by a line
with a star. The top of USGS
topographic map sheets are
oriented to true north.
Grid North
True North
G
G
a
Central Meridian
Magnetic Declination
Magnetic Declination is the angle between true
north and magnetic north at any point on the earth
Magnetic north moves every day.
Magnetic Declination
West
Declination
ic
on
Ag
East Declination
Lin
e
Declination changes
with location on earth
and time
To determine
declination, you need
to know if magnetic
north is east or west
of true north from the
location
Stated as an angle
and whether E or W
Magnetic Declination
Also referred to as variation,
magnetic variation and compass
variation
Mathematical models exist to
calculate declination at any point
on earth at any date International
Geomagnetic Reference Field
(IGRF) are produced every 5
years. 2005 is the latest.
East Declination
East declinations occur when magnetic north lies
east of true north with respect to the location.
True for any location west of the zero declination
(Agonic) line e.g. west Texas, California
Value is added to magnetic reading
Example - Declination of a location in
Bakersfield, CA is 130 38' E, magnetic survey
reading is 1380 04' azimuth azimuth with
reference to true north is 1510 42'
West Declination
West declinations occur when magnetic north
lies west of true north with respect to the
location.
True for any location east of the zero declination
(Agonic) line e.g. Florida, Georgia
Value is subtracted from magnetic reading
Example - Declination of a location in Mobile
Bay, AL is 00 45' W, magnetic survey reading is
2450 04' azimuth azimuth with reference to true
north is 2440 19'
http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/seg/geomag/declination.shtml
CADET
Grid Convergence
True North
G
G
a
Central Meridian
Toolface
Used with deflection tools or steerable
motors
Can be physically marked on a tool
scribe line
"Toolface Orientation" is the angular
measurement of a deflection tool with
respect to either up (highside) or to North
Highside Toolface
Up
(High side)
Line
Scribe
Tool Face
Magnetic Toolface
Only used at very low inclination angles typically
<40
Used when kicking off from a straight well.
Simply tells driller which direction the well is
facing.
Offset Toolface
The directional measurement device in some
tools will have a offset between it and the
deflection tool's scribe line. The is called the
Offset Tool Face
It is usually measured in the derrick while making
up the bottom hole assembly
OTF = Measured offset x 360
Circumference
Section 3
Surveying Tools
Tool Types
Inclination Only Drift Tools
Magnetic Survey Tools
Gyroscopic survey tools
Drift Tools
Totco Drift original clockwork pendulum
device. Wireline deployed.
Teledrift part of Bottom Hole Assembly
(BHA) replacing a drill collar transmits
inclination at connection time
Anderdrift competitor to Teledrift
Steering Tool
Used with mud motors and
bent sub
Can either pull every stand
or use a side entry sub for
continuous drilling
Standard
Measuring
Cable
Monel DC
Probe
Mule Shoe
Bent Sub
Mud Motor
Magnetometer
Measures earth's local
magnetic field
When placed in external
magnetic field (e.g. the
earth's) an imbalance
occurs in the core and a
voltage in the sense coil
is produced that is
proportional to the
magnetic field.
3-Axis Magnetometer
Three single-axis
magnetometers are
combined to measure
the x, y and z
magnetic fields
Accelerometers
Newton's law simply states that if
a mass, m, is undergoing an
acceleration, a, then there must
be a force F acting on the mass
and given by F = ma.
There are many types of
accelerometers, but all use
Newton's law.
Using three accelerometers
arranged at 90 degrees, the
earth's gravity vector can be
measured.
Directional Package
Combined three axis
magnetometer and
accelerometer in one
package
Calibration of sensors
with temperature and
alignment errors,
handled by k-factor
file.
my
mx
mz
ay
ax
az
Inclination Calculation
Azimuth Calculation
Az tan
TGF hx g y hy g x
MagDecl .
hz g g g z hx g x hy g y
2
x
2
y
Gravity Toolface
Calculation
gx
GTF tan
OTF
gy
Magnetic Toolface
Calculation
TGF hx g x hz
MTF tan
OTF MagDecl
TGF hy g y hz
1
TGF g g g
2
x
2
y
2
z
Section 4
Vertical Hole
No hole is drilled exactly vertically from spud to
TD
It is generally accepted that a straight or vertical
well is one that:
Stays within the boundary of a cone, as specified by
the client (usually about 3 degrees)
Does not change direction rapidly (no more than 3
degrees per 100 feet of hole) and form a dogleg
Directional Drilling
Definition
Process of directing the wellbore along a
trajectory to a predetermined target
Sidetrack
If the target location changes,
for whatever reason, but the
surface location stays the
same the new well is called a
GEOLOGICAL SIDETRACK
If a sidetrack is made to
bypass an obstruction while
the surface and target
locations remain the same
this is called a MECHANICAL
SIDETRACK
Dog Leg
D.L. = cos-1[sinI1sinI2 cos(A2-A1) +
CosI1cosI2]
Vertical Section
Surface
Bo
tto
Po m H
s it
ion ole
Closure
Defined as the straight line from the rig
reference to any rectangular coordinate in the
horizontal plane usually to define the bottom of
the well bore
Example, if the surveyed position is 643' North,
962 East, closure can be calculated using the
Pythagorian Theorem
962'
Cl
o
643'
North
su
re
East
Tie-in
Usually there are several companies
involved in surveying a well. A method of
handing over well bore coordinates is
needed.
TIE -IN
Measured Depth
Azimuth
Inclination
TVD
N/S Coordinate
E/W Coordinate
Proposed drift Direction
Section 5
Quality Controls
Magnetic Spacing
Survey tools that use magnetometers respond to
the earth's magnetic field and any other
magnetic fields
Steel drill collars or drill bits may become
magnetized creating local magnetic fields that
will distort azimuth and MTF readings
To reduce this effect to within acceptable limits,
non-magnetic drill collars are spaced either side
of the survey tool in the BHA
The amount of non-magnetic drill collars
(monels) required varies with hole inclination,
azimuth, and geographic location on earth
Monel Spacing
Charts are available to determine the
number of monels above and/or below the
survey instrument
Typically one or two 30' monels are used.
Temperature Effects
Apart from the obvious of exceeding the tool's
temperatue rating, there is a source of error if the
directional package's temperature sensor fails
All survey tools need to be calibrated to correct
for temperature drift errors. This is typically
corrected for by a look-up table or a set of K
factors with temperature as a variable.
In the event that a temperature sensor fails, an
incorrect adjustment will be computed
Depth
There are many ways to incorrectly record depth
A good rapport with the driller is essential,
especially when relying on his pipe tally
Some tools store in memory the survey results
for later transmission. It is important to know
your tools when was the measurement actually
made, and what was the depth at that time?
Checkshot
If in any doubt as to the accuracy of a
survey tool, remember it is always possible
to pull back to the last known good survey
and re-survey
Often, the drillstring can be rotated so that
say 4 surveys are taken at the same
depth. The readings should be consistent
in the absence of magnetic interference.
Section 6
Surveying Calculations
Introduction
A directional survey gives inclination, azimuth at
a certain measured depth. This information must
be analyzed to calculate the actual position of
the well relative to the surface location
The incremental distances between survey
stations must be calculated
The horizontal coordinates of a point are referred
to as the "Northing" (or latitude) and the
"Easting" (or departure)
Minimum Curvature
This method assumes that the wellbore
follows the smoothest possible circular
arc from station 1 to station 2
This done by applying a ratio factor
based on the amount of bending in the
wellpath between the two stations the
dog-leg angle
This method is the most accurate and is
sometimes known as circular arc method
Most commonly used these days since
its complex calculations are easily
handled by laptop computers
Minimum Curvature
Calculations
Inputs
Inclination at Stations
1&2
Azimuth at Stations
1&2
Measured depths at
Stations 1 & 2
Outputs
Dog-Leg angle
TVD
Northing coordinates
Easting coordinates
Other Calculations
Vertical Section
Gives a vertical view of the well profile
One plane has to be selected so all points can be
plotted on a common axis
Use the target and reference origin
Calculate to project all points onto this plane
Along with TVD, these vertical sections can now be
plotted to give the well profile
DLS
Since dog leg angle had to be calculated, dog-leg
severity is trivial
Closure
Section 7
Texas Railroad
Commission
Railroad Commission of
Texas jurisdiction grew to
encompass oil and gas
production and
transportation in 1919
Its statutory role is to:
TRC Requirements
Straight Wells
Inclination Survey
First survey <500 feet
Subsequent surveys
between 500 and
1,000 feet apart.
Not required on dry
holes
Directional Wells
Directional Survey
Every 200 feet
PART 1 RAILROAD COMMISSION OF TEXAS; CHAPTER 3 OIL AND GAS DIVISION; 3.12 Directional Survey
Company Report