Microwave Engineering

EC402 Microwave
Engineering
Electromagnetic Spectrum
National Institute of Technology,

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Microwave Engineering
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Microwave frequency range 1-30GHz

wave length
30cm-1cm

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Microwave Frequency Range

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Characteristics of Microwaves
1.Small size wavelength
f=1GHz
=c/f=3x1010/1x109=30cm
f=30GHz
=c/f=3x1010/30x109=1cm
Wave lengths are same as dimensions of
components, so distributed circuit
elements or transmission theory is
applied.
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Characteristics-Large Bandwidth
Large Bandwidth
High transmission rates used for
communication
Worlds data, TV and telephone
communications are transmitted long
distances by microwaves between ground
stations andcommunications satellite

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Characteristics-Line of sight
propagation

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propagation

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propagation

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Characteristics-Transmission
Through Ionosphere

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Through Ionosphere

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Through Ionosphere

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Characteristics- Reflection From

Metallic Surfaces

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Characteristics

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Characteristics- Heating

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Characteristics- Microwave
Resonance
crowave Resonance: Molecular, atomic and nuclear

stems exhibit resonance when Present electromagn
lds
veral resonance absorption lines are in microwave ra

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Application- Communications
Point to point communications

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GSM 1.8 and 1.9 GHz

DVB-SH, 1.452, 1.492 GHz
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Wi-Fi
Wireless LAN networks 2.4GHz ISM band

Microwave
Engineering
National
Institute of Technology,
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Wimax
imax(Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access)

2 to 11 GHz
MP-Point to multipoint links
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Wimax, WiFi

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Satellite Communications
L band (1-2 GHz )Global Positioning System(GPS) carriers and

also satellite mobile phones, such asIridium; Inmarsat providing communication
land and air; WorldSpace satellite radio.

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Satellite Communications

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RADAR

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RADAR
Radaris an object-detection system that uses
radio wavesto
determine the range, altitude, direction, or speed of
objects.
It can be used to detectaircraft, ships,spacecraft,
guided missiles, motor vehicles,
weather formations, and terrain.
Aviation
Marine
Meteorologists

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Heating
Domestic Application: Heating, Microwave oven
ndustrial Application: Food, Rubber, leather, chemical and

extile , pharmaceutical industries

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Remote Sensing
Remote sensing: Remote sensingis the acquisition of
information about an object or phenomenon without
making physical contact with the object and thus in
contrast to on site observation.

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Remote Sensing

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Radio Astronomy
Radio
Astronomy:
Radio
astronomyis a
subfield
ofastronomy
that studies
celestial objects
atradiofrequen
cies.

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Radio Astronomy
cibo 305 m (about 20 acres) radio telescope, located in a natural valley in Puert
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Radio Interferometery
Very Large Array, aninterferometric arrayformed from many smaller telescopes

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Medical Application

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Microwave Imaging
Microwave imagingis a science which has been
evolved from older detecting/locating techniques
(e.g.,radar) in order to evaluate hidden or
embedded objects in a structure (or media)using
electromagnetic (EM) waves inmicrowaveregime
(i.e., ~300MHz-300GHz)

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Microwave Imaging
concealed weapon detection at security
check points, structural health monitoring
through-the-wall imaging.
Disbond detection in strengthened
concrete bridge
Corrosion and precursor pitting detection
in painted aluminum and steel substrates
Flaw detection in spray-on foam insulation

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Industry Applications
Microwave oven
Drying machines textile, food and paper industry for drying
clothes, potato chips, printed matters etc.
Food process industry Precooling / cooking, pasteurization /
sterility, hat frozen / refrigerated precooled meats, roasting of
food grains / beans.
Rubber industry / plastics / chemical / forest product industries
Mining / public works, breaking rocks, tunnel boring, drying /
breaking up concrete, breaking up coal seams, curing of
cement.
Drying inks / drying textiles, drying / sterilizing grains, drying /
sterilizing pharmaceuticals, leather, tobacco, power
transmission.
Biomedical Applications ( diagnostic / therapeutic ) diathermy
for localized superficial heating, deep electromagnetic heating
for treatment of cancer, hyperthermia ( local, regional or whole
body for cancer therapy).

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Advantages
arge Bandwidth: It is very good advantage,

ecause of this, Microwaves are used for Point to Point
ommunications.

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Advantages
Better Directivity

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Advantages
tter Directivity: At Microwave Frequencies, there are bette

rective properties. This is due to the relation that as Freque
creases, Wavelength decreases and as Wavelength decrease
rectivity Increases andBeam widthdecreases. So it is easier
esign and fabricate high gain antenna in Microwaves.

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Advantages
Small Size Antenna

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Advantages
Low PowerConsumption

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Advantages
ow PowerConsumption:The power required to transmit a h

equency signal is lesser than the power required in transmis
f low frequency signals. As Microwaves have high frequency
equires very less power.

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Advantages
Effect Of Fading
Space wave
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Advantages
Effect Of Fading:The effect of fading is minimized by
using Line Of Sight propagation technique at Microwave
Frequencies. While at low frequency signals, the layers
around the earth causes fading of the signal.
Space wave
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Fresnel Zone

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Fresnel Zone
should be no reflective objects in the 1st Fresnel zon

Fresnel zone areout of phasewith the direct-path
educe the power of the received signal
Fresnel zone arein phasewith the direct-path wave
nhance the power
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Limitations of Tubes at High

Frequencies

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Vacuum tubes- Triode

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Triode Amplifier Circuit

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Limitations at Higher Frequencies

Inter electrode Capacitance

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At frequencies greater than 1 GHz

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Leads:Leads are used for physical
support, to
transfer power and sometimes as
aHeatsink.

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Leads:Leads are used for physical
support, to
transfer power and sometimes as
In fact, any wires or
aHeatsink.
component leads that have
current flowing through them
create magnetic fields. When
these magnetic fields are
created, they can produce an
inductive effect. Thus, wires
or components leads can act
as inductors if they are long
enough Microwave Engineering
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rasitic Inductance and capacitance becomes very la

Microwave frequencies

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educe length of and area of leads, in turn reduces

wer handled.

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put conductance loads the circuitry, efficiency reduc

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Lead Inductance

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Input Impedance
Input Voltage

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Input Impedance
Input Current

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Input Impedance
Input Admittance

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Input Impedance

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Input Impedance
Input Impedance

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Input Impedance
Input Impedance
put conductance loads the circuitry, efficiency reduc

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Gain Bandwidth

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Gain Bandwidth

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Gain Bandwidth

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Gain Bandwidth

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Gain Bandwidth

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Gain Bandwidth

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Gain Bandwidth

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Gain Bandwidth

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Gain Bandwidth
in bandwidth product is independent of frequency,

nce is constant. Hence resonant circuits are reentran
slow wave structures
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Transit Time

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Transit Time

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Transit Time

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Transit Time

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Transit Time

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Transit Time
In the positive half-cycle, grid potential attracts
the
electron beam and supplies energy to it

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Transit Time
In the negative half-cycle, it repels the electron

beam
and extracts energy from it.

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Transit Time
As a result, the electron beam oscillates back and

forth in the region between the cathode
and the grid, and may even return to the
cathode.
The overall result is a reduction of the operating
frequency
of the vacuum tube.

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Transit Time
educe Transit Time

ncreasing the anode voltage
Decreasing the inter-electrode spacing
owever, the increase in anode voltage will

ncrease the power dissipation,
whereas the decrease in inter-electrode spacing

will increase the inter-electrode capacitance.

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Transit Time
he increase in inter-electrode capacitance can be

educed by reducing the area of the electrodes,
ut this will reduce anode dissipation and hence the
utput power.

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RF Loss- Skin Effect Loss

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Skin effect loss At a high frequency, current has
a tendency to concentrate around the surface
rather than being distributed throughout the
cross section. This is known as skin effect.
It reduces the effective surface area, which in
turn increases the resistance and hence the loss
of the device.
Resistance loss is also proportional to the
square of the frequency.
Losses due to skin effect can be reduced by
increasing the current-carrying area, which, in
turn, increases the inter-electrode capacitance
and thus limits high frequency operations.
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RF Loss- Dielectric Loss

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RF Loss- Dielectric Loss

Dielectric loss Dielectric loss in a material
is proportional to frequency, and hence
plays an important role in the operations
of high-frequency tubes. This loss can be
avoided by eliminating the tube base and
reducing the surface area of the dielectric
materials, and can be reduced by placing
insulating materials at the point of
minimum electric field.

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Radiation Loss

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Radiation Loss
Radiation loss At higher frequencies, the
length of the leads approaches the
operating wavelength, and as a result these
start radiating. Radiation loss increases with
the increase in frequency and hence is very
severe at microwave frequencies. Proper
shielding is required to avoid this loss.
Radiation loss can be minimized by
enclosing the tubes or using a concentric
line construction
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Resonator
Aresonatoris a device or system that
exhibitsresonanceor resonant behavior,
that is, it naturallyoscillatesat some
frequencies, called its resonant frequencies,
with greateramplitudethan at others.

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Resonant Circuit

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Resonant Circuit
An electrical circuit composed of discrete
components can act as a resonator when
both aninductorandcapacitorare
included. Suchresonant circuitsare also
calledRLC circuitsafter the circuit symbols
for the components.

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Cavity Resonator

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Cavity Resonator
Acavity resonator, usually used in
reference to electromagnetic
resonators, is one in which waves exist
in a hollow space inside the device

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Cavity Resonator
Due to the low resistance of their conductive
walls, cavity resonators have very high
Q factors; that is theirbandwidth, the range of
frequencies around the resonant frequency at
which they will resonate, is very narrow.
Thus they can act as narrow bandpass filters.
Cavity resonators are widely used as the
frequency determining element in
microwave oscillators.
Their resonant frequency can be tuned by
moving
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Rectangular Cavity Resonator

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For a > b < d, the

dominant mode is the
TE101 mode.

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The electric field lines
start from top and
bottom, positive and
negative charges are
induced, hence forms
capacitor
The current flows via
side walls and hence
serve as inductor, hence
the enclosed volume
behaves as tank circuit.
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Circular Cavity Resonator

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Circular Cavity Resonator

TE111 mode is the dominant mode.

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Quality Factor
TheQ factor(quality factor) of a
resonator is a measure of the strength
of the damping of its oscillations, or
for the relative linewidth.
theQfactor is 2times the ratio of
the stored energy to the energy
dissipated per oscillation cycle
theQfactor is the ratio of the resonance
frequency0and the full width at halfmaximum (FWHM)bandwidthof the
resonance:
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Quality Factor

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Reentrant Cavity Resonator

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Excitation Wave Modes
Loop coupling

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Probe coupling
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Probe coupling

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Loop coupling

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Aperture Coupling
Aperture coupling

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Coupling Between Waveguides
Directional Coupler

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Linear Beam Tubes-Otype Tubes

Electric Field is applied to the accelerate
or decelerate the Electron beam
Magnetic Field is applied along the axis to
Focus the electron beam.

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Klystron
an electron tube that generates or amplifies microwaves by velocity
modulation.

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Klystron
an electron tube that generates or amplifies microwaves by velocity
modulation.

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Klystron- Velocity Modulation

Velocity of electrons accelerated by high
DC Voltage

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Gap Voltage applied at Buncher grids
Where

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Gap Voltage applied at Buncher grids
Where

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Average transit time through buncher gap

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Average Voltage across the buncher gap

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Equation for Velocity Modulation

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Klystron- Bunching Process

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Distance travelled by the electrons in
drift space.

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Klystron- Current Modulation

Beam Current varies with the applied RF
voltage current modulation.
Fundamental component of current

Current becomes maximum at

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Klystron- Current Modulation

Optimum distance for bunching

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Klystron

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Applegate Diagram

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Output Power

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Output Power

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Efficiency
Theoretical efficiency is 58%

Where as practical efficiency is 15% to 30%

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Voltage Gain

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Typical Values

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Applications
As power output tubes
1. in UHF TV
transmitters
2. in troposphere
scatter transmitters
3. satellite
communication
ground station
4. radar transmitters
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Klystron

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Multi cavity Klystron

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Reflex Klystron

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Reflex Klystron

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Velocity Modulation
Velocity of the electrons in entering the cavity gap

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Velocity Modulation
xit Velocity of the electrons in leaving the cavity gap

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Velocity Modulation
Retarding Electric Field

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Velocity Modulation
Force equation of one electron assuming V1<<(Vr+V

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Reflex Klystron
Integrating

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Reflex Klystron
Integrating

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Reflex Klystron
Integrating

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Reflex Klystron
Integrating

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Reflex Klystron

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Reflex Klystron

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Reflex Klystron

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Transit Time
Round trip transit time in the repeller region

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Transit Time

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Applegate Diagram

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Applegate Diagram

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Efficiency

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Efficiency of Reflex Klystron

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Characteristics of Reflex Klystron

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Electronic Admittance

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nched electrons return to the cavity gap a little befor

e transit time, current leads the behind the fieldpacitance appears in the circuit

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nched electrons return to the cavity gap a little after

e ac current lags the field inductance reactance
pears in the circuit

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ondition for oscillation Ge is negative and total

onductance in the circuit is negative Ge>Gc+Gl

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Applications
Low power oscillator- 10mw to 500mw

Frequency 1-25GHz
Local Oscillator in commercial , Military,

Air borne Doppler radar and missiles.

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Tuning Klystron
Electronic Tuning

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Tuning Klystron
echanical Tuning: By changing capacitance or inducta

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Klystron

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Klystron
Output is via a co-axial

pin, and the device can
be mechanically
tuned with the screw
on the left, which
applies vertical
compression to the
metal envelope.
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Amplitude Modulation -Klystron

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Frequency Modulation Klystron

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Slow Wave Structures

Non Resonant periodic circuits
Produce large gain over wide bandwidth

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Slow Wave Structures

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Slow Wave Structure

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Phase Velocity

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Group Velocity

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Travelling wave tube

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Amplifiers insatellitetransponders,
where the input signal is very weak
and the output needs to be high
power.
TWTA transmitters are used
extensively inradar, particularly in
airbornefire-control radarsystems,
and inelectronic warfareand selfprotection systems
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Linear Beam tubes O type
Klystron Resonant , standing wave

Reflex Klystron- Resonant, standing wave
Travelling wave tube- Non resonant, travelling wav

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Amplifies a wide range offrequencies, a
widebandwidth and low noise.
Bandwidth twooctaves, while the cavity
versions have bandwidths of 1020%.
Operating frequencies range from 300MHz to
50GHz.
The power gain of the tube is on the order of
40 to 70decibels
Microwave a
Engineering
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power
ranges from
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National Institute
of Technology,
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Octave
A frequency is said to be anoctavein

width when the upperband frequencyis
twice the lower band frequency

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Crossed Field tubes M type

Crossed-field tubes derive their name
from the fact that the dc electric field
and the dC magnetic field are
perpendicular to each other.
They are also called M type tubes

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Cylindrical Magnetron

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Travelling wave Magnetron

Depend upon the interaction of
electrons with a rotating
electromagnetic field of same angular
velocity.
Provide oscillations of very high peak
power and hence are useful in radar
applications

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Cavity Magnetron
Fig (i) Major elements in the Magnetron oscillator

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Anode Assembly

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Construction
Each cavity in the anode acts as an inductor having only
one turn and the slot connecting the cavity and the
interaction space acts as a capacitor.
These two form a parallel resonant circuit and its resonant
frequency depends on the value of L of the cavity and the
C of the slot.
The frequency of the microwaves generated by the
magnetron oscillator depends on the frequency of the RF
oscillations existing in the resonant cavities.

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Reentrant Cavity

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Reentrant Cavity

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Description
Magnetron is a cross field device as the electric field
between the anode and the cathode is radial whereas the
magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet is axial.
A high DC potential can be applied between the cathode
and anode which produces the radial electric field.
Depending on the relative strengths of the electric and
magnetic fields, the electrons emitted from the cathode
and moving towards the anode will traverse through the
interaction space as shown in Fig. (iii).
In the absence of magnetic field (B = 0), the electron travel
straight from the cathode to the anode due to the radial
electric field force acting on it, Fig (iii) a.
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Cavity Magnetron

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Cavity Magnetron

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Cavity Magnetron

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Cavity Magnetron

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Description
If the magnetic field strength is increased slightly, the
lateral force bending the path of the electron as given by
the path b in Fig. (iii).
The radius of the path is given by, If the strength of the
magnetic field is made sufficiently high then the electrons
can be prevented from reaching the anode as indicated
path c in Fig. (iii)),
The magnetic field required to return electrons back to the
cathode just grazing the surface of the anode is called the
critical magnetic field (Bc) or the cut off magnetic field.
If the magnetic field is larger than the critical field (B > Bc),
the electron experiences a greater rotational force and may
return back to the cathode quite faster.
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Fig (iii) Electron
trajectories in the
presence of crossed
electric and magnetic
fields
(a) no magnetic
field
(b) small magnetic
field
(c) Magnetic field =
Bc
(d) Excessive
magnetic field
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Effect of electric field
Effect of magnetic
field
Effect of Crossed-Fields
Hull Cut off Condition

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e due to magnetic field on charge Q moving with vel
Force on electron moving with velocity v

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Force due to electric field on electron

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Magnetic Field Bz az

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Equations of electrons in motion

Acceleration due to electric field

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Equations of Electrons in motion

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Rearranging the equation (2)

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Angular Velocity

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Kinetic Energy of Electrons
Velocity of electrons

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Hull Cutoff Magnetic Equation

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Hull Cutoff Voltage Equation

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Cyclotron Angular Frequency

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Cyclotron Angular Frequency

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Time Period

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Phase shift between adjacent

cavities

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Phase constant

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Mode

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RF Field

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Working
Fig (iv) Possible trajectory of electrons from cathode to anode
in an eight cavity magnetron operating in mode
PH0101
Unit 2
Lecture 5
235
Working
The RF Oscillations of transient nature produced when
the HT is switched on, are sufficient to produce the
oscillations in the cavities, these oscillations are
maintained in the cavities reentrant feedback which
results in the production of microwaves.
Reentrant feedback takes place as a result of interaction
of the electrons with the electric field of the RF
oscillations existing in the cavities.
The cavity oscillations produce electric fields which fringe
out into the interaction space from the slots in the anode
structure, as shown in Fig (iv).
Energy is transferred from the radial dc field to the RF
field by the interaction of the electrons with the fringing
RF field.
PH0101
Unit 2
Lecture 5
236
Working
Due to the oscillations in the cavities, the either sides of the
slots (which acts as a capacitor) becomes alternatively
positive and negative and hence the directions of the electric
field across the slot also reverse its sign alternatively.
At any instant the anode close to the spiraling electron goes
positive, the electrons gets retarded and this is because; the
electron has to move in the RF field, existing close to the
slot, from positive side to the negative side of the slot.
In this process, the electron loses energy and transfer an
equal amount of energy to the RF field which retard the
spiraling electron.
On return to the previous orbit the electron may reach the
adjacent section or a section farther away and transfer
energy to the RF field if that part of the anode goes positive
at that instant.
PH0101
Unit 2
Lecture 5
237
Working
This electron travels in a longest path from cathode to the
anode as indicated by a in Fig (iv), transferring the
energy to the RF field are called as favoured electrons and
are responsible for bunching effect and give up most of its
energy before it finally terminates on the anode surface.
An electron b is accelerated by the RF field and instead
of imparting energy to the oscillations, takes energy from
oscillations resulting in increased velocity, such electrons
are called unfavoured electrons which do not participate in
the bunching process and cause back heating.
Every time an electron approaches the anode in phase
with the RF signal, it completes a cycle. This corresponds
to a phase shift 2.
For a dominant mode, the adjacent poles have a phase
difference of radians, this called the - mode.
PH0101
Unit 2
Lecture 5
238
Fig (v) Bunching of electrons in

multicavity magnetron
PH0101
Unit 2
Lecture 5
239
Working
At any particular instant, one set of alternate poles

goes positive and the remaining set of alternate poles
goes negative due to the RF oscillations in the cavities.
AS the electron approaches the anode, one set of
alternate poles accelerates the electrons and turns
back the electrons quickly to the cathode and the other
set alternate poles retard the electrons, thereby
transferring the energy from electrons to the RF signal.
This process results in the bunching of electrons, the
mechanism by which electron bunches are formed and
by which electrons are kept in synchronism with the RF
field is called phase focussing effect. electrons with the
fringing RF field.
PH0101
Unit 2
Lecture 5
240
Working
The number of bunches depends on the number of
cavities in the magnetron and the mode of oscillations, in
an eight cavity magnetron oscillating with - mode, the
electrons are bunched in four groups as shown in Fig (v).
Two identical resonant cavities will resonate at two
frequencies when they are coupled together; this is due to
the effect of mutual coupling.
Commonly separating the pi mode from adjacent modes is
by a method called strapping. The straps consist of either
circular or rectangular cross section connected to alternate
segments of the anode block.
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Unit 2
Lecture 5
241
Performance Characteristics
1. Power output: In excess of 250 kW ( Pulsed
Mode), 10 mW (UHF band), 2 mW (X band),
8 kW (at 95 GHz)
2. Frequency: 500 MHz 12 GHz
3. Duty cycle: 0.1 %
4. Efficiency: 40 % - 70 %
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Unit 2
Lecture 5
242
Applications of Magnetron
1. Pulsed radar is the single most important
application with large pulse powers.
2. Voltage tunable magnetrons are used in sweep
oscillators in telemetry and in missile
applications.
3. Fixed frequency, CW magnetrons are used for
industrial heating and microwave ovens.
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Unit 2
Lecture 5
243
244
Mode Jumping

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Mode Jumping
Strapping

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Disadvantages
They are costly and hence limited in use.
Although cavity magnetron are used because they
generate a wide range of frequencies , the
frequency is not precisely controllable.
The use in radar itself has reduced to some extent,
as more accurate signals have generally been
needed and developers have moved to klystron
and systems for accurate frequencies.
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Cross Field Amplifier

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The Crossed-Field Amplifier (CFA), is a broadband microwave amplifier
that can also be used as an oscillator (Stabilotron).
It is a so calledVelocity-modulated Tube. The CFA is similar in
operation to themagnetronand is capable of providing relatively large
amounts of power with high efficiency.
In contrast to the magnetron, the CFA have an odd number of
resonant cavities coupled with each other. These resonant cavities
work to as a slow-wave structure: an oscillating resonant cavity
excites the next cavity.
The actual oscillation will be lead from the input waveguide to the
output waveguide.
The electric and magnetic fields in a CFA are perpendicular to each
other (crossed fields). Without an input signal and the influence of
both the electric field (anode voltage) and the magnetic field (a strong
permanent magnet) all electrons will move uniformly from the
cathode
to the anode on a cycloidal
path Engineering
as shown in figure
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If the input-waveguide introduces an oscillation into the first
resonator, the vanes of the resonator gets a voltage difference
synchronously to the oscillation.
Under the influence of this additionally field flying past electrons get
acceleration (at the positively charged vane) or they are decelerated
(at the negatively charged vane). This causes a difference in speed of
the electrons. The faster electrons catch the slower electrons and the
forms electron bunches in the interaction space between the cathode
and the anode.
These bunches of electrons rotates as like as the Space-Charge
Wheel known from the magnetron operation. But they cannot rotate
in full circle, the Space-Charge Wheel will be interrupted because
the odd number of cavities causes an opposite phase in the last odd
cavity (this bottom one between the waveguides).
To avoid a negative feedback, into this resonant cavity may exist a
bloc containing graphite to decouple input and output.
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The bandwidth of the CFA, at any given instant, is approximately plus
or minus 5percent of the rated center frequency.
Any incoming signals within this bandwidth are amplified. Peak power
levels of many megawatts andaverage powerlevels of tens of
kilowatts average are, with efficiency ratings in excess of 70percent,
possible with crossed-field amplifiers.
To avoid ineffective modes of operation the construction of CFA
containsstrapping wireslike to as used in magnetrons.
Because of the desirable characteristics of wide bandwidth, high
efficiency, and the ability to handle large amounts of power, the CFA is
used in many applications in microwave electronic systems.
When used as the intermediate or final stage in high-power radar
systems, all of the advantages of the CFA are used.
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Microwave Engineering

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