FSN 1500 Week 12

Stratospheric Ozone Depletion,

Ground-Level Ozone and the
Electromagnetic Spectrum

Introduction
Although the lay press doesnt report on
stratospheric ozone depletion like it did 5-10 years
ago, this issue is still a significant environmental
topic with global implications (see slide)
Its also important that you realize the difference
between stratospheric ozone (beneficial) and
ground-level ozone (detrimental)

Background
Atmospheric scientists
partition the Earths
atmosphere into five
layers based on
differences in their
physical and chemical
properties; the two layers
closest to the Earth are the
troposphere and the
stratosphere (see figure)

Troposphere
Troposphere - extends from the Earths
surface to an altitude of about 15 kilometers
(km); contains about 90% of all the air in
the entire atmosphere; with increasing
altitude air temperature decreases

Stratosphere
Stratosphere - extends from the
top of the troposphere to an
altitude of about 50 km; contains
about 90% of the atmospheres
naturally occurring ozone; with
increasing altitude the air
temperature increases
Why does the air temperature
increase with increasing altitude
in the stratosphere?
How does stratospheric ozone
benefit life on Earth?

Stratospheric Ozone
Stratospheric ozone benefits humans by absorbing
the bulk (~ 95%) of the ultraviolet (UV) radiation
released from the Sun
Ozone - a pale blue, gaseous molecule composed
of three atoms (triatomic) of oxygen (O3)
The average concentration of ozone in the
stratosphere is about 10 parts per million (ppm)

Stratospheric Ozone
Another measure of ozone concentration is the
Dobson Unit - defined as a slab of ozone of 0.01
mm thickness that would encircle the Earth; the 10
ppm average ozone concentration is equivalent to
300 Dobson units (DU)
If the entire stratospheres ozone was compressed,
a 3 millimeter (mm) thick slab of ozone would
encircle the Earth (see slide)

Stratospheric Ozone
In reality, there is no physical ozone layer - the
ozone is distributed throughout the stratosphere
with a higher concentration found at 12 - 30 km
(commonly termed the ozone layer)
The phrase ozone hole is also misleading; this
describes a volume of the stratosphere that is
markedly depleted in ozone
Most studies now recognize an ozone hole as a
section of the stratosphere where ozone
concentrations lie below 220 Dobson units

Stratospheric Ozone
Why discuss this topic? A significant body of
evidence suggests stratospheric ozone levels are
declining.
Studies suggest a worldwide average
610% decline in stratospheric ozone levels during
the past three decades
Although first recognized over Antarctica, some
degree of stratospheric ozone loss has affected all
latitudes (see figures)

South Pole

Antarctic Ozone

2010: ~21

2010: 118

Source: NASA

Stratospheric Ozone
Be aware; this is another topic that is
frequently discussed by the news media not always correctly!

Stratospheric Ozone
Possible consequences of continued
stratospheric ozone depletion?
1) Increase in skin cancer incidence
as increased proportions of UV
light strike Earths surface; the
more energetic UV light can
penetrate more deeply than visible
light and could mutate skin cell
DNA

Stratospheric Ozone
Some dose-response models
suggest a 1- 2 percent increase
in skin cancer incidence for
every 1 percent decline in
stratospheric ozone levels
Worldwide, reported skin
cancer cases have been rising at
a faster rate than predicted
during the last 30 years. What
could be some other
contributing factors?

Stratospheric Ozone
2) Declines in stratospheric ozone may lead
to increases in cataracts and other eye
damage; the more energetic UV light could
also damage the eyes
As a group optometrists are reporting a
higher occurrence frequency of the
predicted eye damage

Stratospheric Ozone
Optometrists and ophthalmologists
recommend wearing sunglasses with 100%
UV filtration when you venture into
daylight
How could you put yourself at further risk
for eye damage if all you wore was a pair of
dark sunglasses with no UV protection?

Stratospheric Ozone
Eyeglasses, contact lenses, vehicle
windshields, and commercial and
residential windows now all available with
UV filter options
3) Declines in the autoimmune response of
humans would be expected if stratospheric
ozone levels continue to decline

Stratospheric Ozone
Sunburn definitely lowers the concentration
and function of disease-fighting white blood
cells in the body for up to 24 hours after sun
exposure
4) Plant productivity projected to decline if
stratospheric ozone levels continue to
decline

Stratospheric Ozone
The more energetic UV light can damage
plant tissue just as easily as human tissue
5) Indirectly, declines in stratospheric ozone
could lead to an enhanced greenhouse effect
and global warming. How? The lower the
plant productivity the less CO2 removed
from the air; the more air CO2 the more
radiated heat can be absorbed.

Stratospheric Ozone
Studies suggest that ozone is created and
destroyed naturally in the stratosphere according
to four primary, simultaneously occurring
reactions:
O3 (g) + UV ----> O2 (g) + O + heat
O2 (g) + O -----> O3 (g)
O3 (g) + O ------> 2 O2 (g)
O2 (g) + UV -----> O + O

Stratospheric Ozone
If the preceding reactions occur normally,
stratospheric ozone levels should have a
concentration of 300 DU
Since the mid-1970s, evidence has
accumulated linking industrial gas
emissions to accelerated rates of
stratospheric ozone depletion

Stratospheric Ozone
Major human impact? Apparently, the
release of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) gases
to the atmosphere
CFCs - a family of gases colloquially
known as freons, all of them are composed
of various numbers of chlorine, fluorine,
and carbon atoms bonded together (see
figure)

Stratospheric Ozone
The CFCs were first produced in large
volumes by Dupont chemists in the mid
1930s as a substitute refrigeration gas for the
toxic chloromethane and ammonia gases that
were used in very small scale at that time
The CFCs are a perfect refrigeration gas
because theyre nontoxic, noncorrosive and
highly chemically unreactive

Stratospheric Ozone
The primary use of CFCs have always been
as a refrigerant gas; their wide-scale
implementation allowed the US to dominate
the worlds economy for close to 50 years
When CFCs escape from a refrigeration
unit, they rise (less dense than air or carried
upwards by air currents) toward the
stratosphere with virtually no reactivity

Stratospheric Ozone
Laboratory studies suggest it commonly takes one
to two (perhaps as long as ten) years for CFCs to
rise to the stratosphere and that some of them may
have residence times in the troposphere from 25
400 years!
When the CFCs reach the stratosphere they react
with UV light according to the reaction: CFCs +
UV ---> Cl + F + C

Stratospheric Ozone
Apparently its the freed Cl and F atoms
that disrupt the natural ozone cycle
How? Cl + O3 ---> ClO + O2 (destroys
ozone) and ClO + O ---> Cl + O2 (releases
more free Cl)
These two reactions occur more quickly
than the four natural reactions we examined
earlier (see slide)

CFCsinOzoneDestruction

Source:ImagescourtesyNASA.

Stratospheric Ozone
Lab studies suggest that one Cl atom may
destroy as many as 100,000 ozone
molecules before its naturally purged
These same studies suggest a batch of
CFCs could facilitate ozone depletion for
75 - 100 years!

Stratospheric Ozone
Predicted outcome? Stratospheric ozone
levels would continue to deplete
The evidence accumulated in the late 1970s
and 1980s sparked action via the signing of
the Montreal Protocol in 1987 by 43, almost
exclusively Western Hemisphere, countries

Stratospheric Ozone
The signatories agreed to reduce CFC production
to one-half their current levels by the end of 1999
Many less technologically advanced countries
(China, India, the USSR) resisted signing, arguing
that their minor emissions of CFCs didnt cause
the problem and that they had the right to acquire
the Wests living standards

Stratospheric Ozone
By 1990, more data led to revision of the Montreal
Protocol - over 100 nations (exceptions being
China, India, Russia) agreed to cease CFC
production by the end of 1996 with some
exceptions for developing nations
Later that year an international monetary fund was
created to try to lure other countries to sign the
agreement

Stratospheric Ozone
Countries signing the agreement would be given
grant monies to research CFC alternatives
In 1992 the Montreal Protocol was again amended
to set timetables for the reduction and/or
elimination of the production of other (e.g., halons)
substances that can deplete stratospheric ozone (as
late as 2010 for some substances and developing
nations)
Currently about 200 nations have agreed to one or
more provisions of the Montreal Protocol

Stratospheric Ozone
The U.S. agreed (1992) to curtail CFC production
at the end of 1995 during the waning days of the
Bush (senior) Administration? Why?
The CFC production ban allowed freons produced
before the ban started to be used after January 1,
1996
The CFC ban temporarily produced another Black
Market economy! In 1996 the value of illicit CFCs
smuggled into the US was second only to the value
of illicit cocaine

Stratospheric Ozone
What are the CFC substitutes now being
used in new air conditioners, refrigerators
and other cooling units? Two types: HFCs hydrofluorocarbons and HCFCs hydrochlorofluorocarbons
The slight chemistry differences from CFCs
results in substances that are reactive in
Earths lower atmosphere

Stratospheric Ozone
If the refrigerant gases react in the lower
atmosphere theres a much lesser chance of their
Cl and F components ever reaching the
stratosphere
Are the substitutes safe? Some evidence suggests
that the most commonly used CFC substitute may
react to form another type of acid rain detrimental
to wetlands and is a potent greenhouse gas!

Stratospheric Ozone
Updates:
In early October 2006 the
area of the Antarctic
ozone hole was the largest
ever measured and
correlated to below
average stratospheric
temperatures
Possible global warming
connection? (see figures)

Stratospheric Ozone

Source: Science News

Antarctic Ozone

2010: ~21

2010: 118

Source: NASA

Stratospheric Ozone
The figure on the right is
from November 7, 2008
The following link allows
you to determine the
stratospheric ozone level
overhead for anywhere up
to two days beforehand
http://toms.gsfc.nasa.gov
/teacher/ozone_overhead_v
8.html

Stratospheric
Ozone
Overall, these data
(hopefully) suggest
that stratospheric
ozone levels should
begin to show
modest increases
during the next 3050 years as the
Montreal Protocol
provisions lower
ozone-depleting
chemicals in the
upper atmosphere

Ground-level Ozone
Dont confuse stratospheric
ozone with ground-level ozone
Ground-level ozone - ozone
produced in the lower
troposphere; a component of
photochemical smog
Photochemical smog is
generated by UV light
interacting with fossil fuel
combustion gases; especially
nitrogen oxides (NOx)

Los Angeles, CA photochemical smog

Ground-level Ozone
NOx + UV ----> N + O; subsequently this
reaction, O2 + O ---> O3 , generates groundlevel ozone
Youve probably smelled ground-level ozone
after a nearby lightning strike
Who cares?
The American Lung Association cites groundlevel ozone as a severe pollutant

Ground-level Ozone
Studies suggest that prolonged exposure to
even seemingly minor amounts (150 parts
per billion) of ground-level ozone could
cause permanent lung tissue scarring and
loss of pulmonary function
How does this relate to the Ozone Action
Days we hear about each summer in
southeast Michigan?

Ground-level Ozone
What activities are we asked
to curtail or reduce on these
days?
What impact does this issue
have for when and where we
conduct our outdoor aerobic
exercise?

Fairly Recent News

Astronomy
Astronomers are the most disadvantaged
natural scientists since they rarely have the
opportunity to directly sample their objects
of interest
Most of our astronomical knowledge has
been gained indirectly by studying various
regions of the electromagnetic spectrum

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic spectrum - refers to a broad
band of energies created by the movement of
charged particles, mostly electrons
Origin of name? The charged particle movement
generates an electric field and with every
electric field there is an associated magnetic
field, the name electromagnetic summarizes the
electric and magnetic properties

Electromagnetic Spectrum
The term spectrum refers to the broad band
of energies resulting from the electron
motion (see slide)

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Studies illustrate that all electromagnetic energy
has a wave-like component of movement; e.g.,
think of the movement of a water wave
All waves have terms used to describe them,
including the terms wave crest, wave trough, wave
height, wavelength and wave frequency
See slide

Wave Characteristics
Wave crest - highest elevation point of wave
Wave trough - lowest elevation point of wave
Wave height - vertical distance between the wave
crest and wave trough
Wavelength - horizontal spacing between two
adjacent wave crests or two adjacent wave troughs

Wave Characteristics
Wave frequency - the number of wave crests,
or troughs, that pass an observation point per
unit of time; one wave crest or trough passing
a counter every second is defined as a
frequency of 1 cycle per second (1 cps) (see
figure)
1 cps = 1 hertz (Hz)
How is the term hertz familiar to you?

Wave Characteristics
Important relationship: the higher a waves
frequency, the greater its impact or
penetration energy and the shorter its
wavelength
Compare two wave examples drawn on
board - which has the higher frequency and
therefore the greater energy?

Electromagnetic Spectrum
In our survey of the electromagnetic
spectrum, note the great variance in
wave frequencies and wavelengths as
we move from the higher energy end
(e.g., cosmic and X-rays) to the lower
energy end (radio waves) (see slide)
Can you tell me why UV light is
potentially more damaging than visible
light?

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Within the visible portion (violet, blue,
green, yellow orange, red) of the
electromagnetic spectrum, each color we
see has a specific wavelength and frequency
See slide

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Notice also that the Earths atmosphere is
opaque (cant be effectively penetrated),
semi-transparent or transparent (essentially
uninhibited penetration) to different
energies of the electromagnetic spectrum
(see slide)
In addition, how does a microwave oven
cook food?

Astronomy Applications
Astronomers study portions of the
electromagnetic spectrum by using light,
radio, X-ray, and microwave telescopes
commonly in their research
Applications?
Much of our knowledge of the composition
of celestial objects (e.g., stars) stems from
observations of the light they emit

Astronomy Applications
Background: youve all seen how white
light is separated into its spectral colors by
a rainbow or prism (see figure)

Astronomy Applications
Astronomers use special devices called
spectrometers to study the light emitted by
celestial objects
Each element (compounds too) has its own
light fingerprint
Use the following slide to discuss why

Element-specific spectral line colors and spacing

Light emitted by element

Element heated or exposed to electrical

discharge until it emits light (glows)

Astronomy Applications
Why does each element have an unique light
fingerprint? Think of the atom structure. A nucleus
surrounded by electrons that occupy regions of
space called energy level shells
Electrons can be apparently boosted from the
ground (undisturbed) state to a higher energy level
(excited state) by the absorption of photons (see
slide)

Higher energy
level than
ground state

Astronomy Applications
Photon - a small package of energy (e.g., light,
electrical discharge)
The electrons boosted to a higher energy state are
not stable since everything in the universe attempts
to reach the lowest energy, highest equilibrium
state
At some point the electrons collapse downward to
their original ground state energy level, emitting
flashes of light

Astronomy Applications
Since the number of electrons and the distance
between electron energy levels in each atom
type (e.g., C, O, Na, etc.) is unique, the emitted
light flashes (photons) are also unique
This light can be separated into its unique
spectral colors and spacings by spectrometers
See slides

(For hydrogen)

Astronomy Applications
On Earth, we excite electrons in atoms of
different elements (compounds too), one at
a time, in a laboratory (see slide) and use
spectrometers to record their spectral
components (characteristic colors and
spacings)

Astronomy Applications
Astronomers use light telescopes outfitted with
spectrometers to identify elements (and
compounds) in celestial objects that match the lab
results
Today the light telescopes are outfitted with
spectrometers that are interfaced with computers;
the computers are used to distinguish the chemical
composition of objects from the blend of light they
emit
Think about this process when you next gaze upon
a star!

Astronomy Applications
Lets go to the adjacent
room and view a
demonstration of the
characteristic light spectra
of selected elements
Once we get there, be able
to explain to me how
neon lights work and the
origin of the Earths aurora
(e.g., Aurora Borealis and
Aurora Australis)

Astronomy Applications
So next class well begin our overview of specific
astronomy topics; well learn that space probes,
satellites and improved telescopes are rapidly
increasing our knowledge of astronomy
Ill whet your appetite with a short, time-lapse
movie/simulation capturing the descent of the
Huygens space probe, launched from its parent
probe Cassini, to the surface of Saturns moon
Titan in January 2005 (about 720 million miles
from Earth)

An Update