Transduer

TRANSDUCERS:
VARIABLE
RESISTIVE/CAPACITIVE/
INDUCTIVE
PRESENTED BY:
Er. SANJEEV GOYAL
Sr LECTURER
Govt Polytechnic College
BATHINDA
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PUNJAB EDUSAT SOCIETY
5/9/2012
Introduction Of Transducers
ENERGY CAN
NEITHER BE CREATED
NOR BE DESTROYED,
IT CAN ONLY BE TRANSFORMED
FROM
ONE STATE TO ANOTHER
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5/9/2012
Transducer is a device, usually electrical,
electronic, or electromechanical, that

converts one type of energy to another
for various purposes including
measurement or information transfer.
It must produce the output which
depends on some way on the input
quantity/measurand.
5/9/2012
Its output will depends on its input if it
processes upon the actual input.

So transducer extracts some energy
from the measured medium.
Some energy is required to convert the
in input to output.
This energy can be supplied from
outside or by the measurand only.
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Transducers are divided into two types:
Active Transducer
Passive Transducer
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Active Transducers
An active transducer does not require
an external power supply to provide an

output signal.
These transducers usually rely upon
magnetic inductance or piezoelectric
effects to produce their output signals.
Ex. Piezoelectric crystal used for
acceleration measurement.
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Active Transducers
Measurand is converted into output
without any other form of energy

requirements.
They are also called self generating
type transducers.
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Passive Transducers
Passive transducers need an external
power supply in order to amplifies the input

and generate an output signal.
All passive transducers change one of, or
a combination of, the three general circuit
parameters; resistance, inductance, or
capacitance.
Ex. Potentiometer is used for
measurement of pressure, displacement
and position.
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Basic Requirements Of Transducer

Linearity: Linearity of any transducer is the
prime requirement. A transducer having linear

input output characteristics is a big plus.
Repeatability: A transducer having this
quality produces the same result again and
again when the same input signal is applied
repeatedly under same environmental
conditions ex. Temperature, pressure,
humidity etc.
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Ruggedness: A transducer should be
robust in construction. It should be

mechanically rugged, so that is capable
of withstanding overload.
High Signal To Noise Ratio: The
quality of output signal of transducer
should be good; it should be free from
the internal and external noise.
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Highly Reliable: Output of the transducer
should be highly reliable and stable it should be

precise. It should give minimum error in
measurement for temperature variations,
humidity vibrations.
Good Dynamic Response: A transducer may
be called upon to respond to either slowly
varying or dynamic signals. Its output should be
faithful to input when taken as a function of
time.
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No Hysteresis: A good transducer is free
from hysteresis. It should not introduce

any hysteresis during measurement while
input signal is varied from its low value to
high value and vice versa.
Residual Deformation: There should be
no deformation of testing material after
the removal of any pressure after long
period of application.
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5/9/2012
Variable Resistance Type Transducer

The variable resistance transducers are
one of the most commonly used types

of transducers. The variable resistance
transducers are also called as resistive
transducers or resistive sensors.
They can be used for measuring
various physical quantities like
temperature, pressure, displacement,
force, vibrations etc.
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5/9/2012
Variable Resistance Type Transducer

These transducers are usually used as
the secondary transducers, where the

output from the primary mechanical
transducer acts as the input for the
variable resistance transducer.
The output obtained from it is calibrated
against the input quantity and it directly
gives the value of the input.
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5/9/2012
Principle Of Working Of Variable

Resistance Type Transducer
The variable resistance transducer
elements work on the principle that the

resistance of the conductor is directly
proportional to the length of the
conductor and inversely proportional to
the area of the conductor. Thus if L is
the length of the conductor (in m) and A
is its area (in m square), its resistance
(in ohms) is given by:
R = L/A.
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Resistance Type Transducer
L is the length ,A is cross sectional area and
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p is resistivity of the resistance material.

So resistance can be changed if any of
these value p ,L or A is changed.
Measurand is connected to the resistance in
such a way that it varies any one of its
parameters.
A change in the value or R is proportional to
the measurand.
Thus the measurand can be measured by
measuring
the
change
in
resistance.
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Where is called as resistivity of the
material and it is constant for he

materials and is measured in ohm-m.
The resistance of some materials also
changes with the change in their
temperature.
This
principle
is
primarily
used for the measurement of
Resistance
Type Transducer
temperature.
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Variable Resistance Type

Transducer
Some of the variable resistive

transducers are:
Sliding wire(potentiometer)
Strain gauge
Load cell
RTD
Thermistor
Hot wire anemometer
Carbon microphone
Humidity sensor
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Potentiometer
A potentiometer informally, a pot, is a
three-terminal resistor with a sliding

contact that forms an adjustable voltage
divider. If only two terminals are used
(one side and the wiper), it acts as a
variable resistor or rheostat.
Potentiometers are commonly used to
control electrical devices such as
volume controls on audio equipment.
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Potentiometer
The potentiometer is a displacement
transducer.
This is a passive transducer.
It consists of resistive material whose
resistance is proportional to its length.
Slider displacement x is proportional to
the output voltage.
The most common problem is dirt under
the slider.
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Potentiometer
One end of conductor is fixed.
The position of the other end is decided
by the slider/brush.
This contact can move along the whole
length of the conductor.
When the body moves the slider also
moves along the conductor so its
effective length changes.
Due to which its resistance also
changes.
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Potentiometer
The effective resistance value is
measured between the fixed position of

the conductor and the position of the
slider.
The resistance is calibrated against the
input quantity, whose value can be
measured directly.
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Potentiometer
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Potentiometer
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Potentiometer
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Thermistor
Thermistors are thermally sensitive
resistors, generally composed of

semiconductor materials. All resistors
vary with temperature, but thermistors
are constructed of semiconductor
material with a resistivity that is
especially sensitive to temperature. This
resistance changes predictably with
temperature.
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Thermistor
Although Positive Temperature
Coefficient(PTC) units are available,

most thermistors have a Negative
Temperature Coefficient(NTC); that is,
their resistance decreases with
increasing temperature.
The thermistor is an extremely nonlinear device.
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Thermistor
The price we pay for this increased
sensitivity is loss of linearity.

These are usually connected to an
electronic circuit that reads out
temprature digitally.
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Thermistor
The resistance temperature relation is
generally of the form:

R = R0 exp[(1/T 1/T0)]
R = Resistance at temp. T,
R0= Resistance at temp. T0,
= Constant, Characterstics of
material
T, T0 Absolute tempratures, K
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Thermistor
NTC thermistors operates over a range of
-200C to +1000C.NTCs should be

chosen when a continuous change of
resistance is required over a wide
temperature range. They offer mechanical,
thermal and electrical stability, together
with a high degree of sensitivity.
PTC thermistors are temp dependent
resistors manufactured from Barium
Titanate and should be chosen when a
drastic change in resistance is required at
a
specific
temperature
or
current
level.
PUNJAB
EDUSAT
SOCIETY
5/9/2012
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Thermistor
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Advantages Of Thermistor
Inexpensive
Rugged
Reliable
Respond Quickly
Highly Sensitive
Manufactured in a wide range of
shapes, sizes and values.
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Humidity Measurement
Humidity is the amount of water vapour
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in the air and Humidity Measurement is

a measure of relative amount of water
vapour present in the air or a gas.
The humidity can be expressed in
different ways:
Absolute Humidity
Relative Humidity
Dew Point
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Devices that indirectly measure
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humidity by sensing changes in

physical or electrical properties in
materials due to their moisture content
are called hygrometers.
The three major instruments used for
measuring humidity in industry are:
The Electrical Hygrometer
The Psychrometer
The Dew Point Meter
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Resistance Hygrometer
This is an electrical hygrometer.
It is an active transducer.
These instruments are suitable for
measuring moisture levels between 15%

and 95%.
It has typical measurement uncertainty of
3%.
Atmospheric contaminates and operation
in saturation conditions both cause
characteristics drift.
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Principle Of Resistance Hygrometer

Some Hygroscopic Salts exhibit a
change in resistivity with humidity.

Resistive hygrometer humidity sensors
use the change in resistance of a
hygroscopic material between two
electrodes on an insulating substrate.
The hygroscopic salt is deposited
between two electrodes. The resistance
of the element changes when it is
exposed to variations in humidity.
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Resistance Hygrometer
The Resistance Hygrometer should
not be exposed to conditions of 100%

humidity as the resulting condensation
may damage the device.
These are accurate to within 2.5 %
or 1.5 % in some cases.
Response times are typically of the
order of a few seconds.
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APPLICATIONS
Humidity sensors can be used not only
to measure the humidity in an

atmosphere but also to automatically
control:
-> Humidifiers
-> Dehumidifiers
-> Air conditioners for adjustment.
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5/9/2012
Strain Gauge Pressure Transducer

When the tension is applied to the
electrical conductor, its length increases

while the cross section area decreases.
So its resistance changes.
This change can be measured to
measured.
Used for the measurement of force,
stress and strain.
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A strain gauge is a passive type
resistance pressure transducer whose

electrical resistance changes when it is
stretched or compressed
A pressure transducer contains a
diaphragm which is deformed by the
pressure which can cause a strain gauge
to stretch or compress. This deformation
of the strain gauge causes the variation in
length and cross sectional area due to
which its resistance changes.
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The wire filament is attached to a
structure under strain and the resistance
in the strained wire is measured.
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Construction and Working
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Construction and Working
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Strain gauge pressure transducers are
used for narrow pressure span and for

differential pressure measurments
Available for pressure ranges as low
as 3 inches of water to as high as
200,000 psig
Inaccuracy ranges from 0.1 % of span
to 0.25 % of full scale
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RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE
DETECTOR
Resistance(RTD)
temperature detector (RTD)
devices are conductors used for
temperature sensing.
They can be used in bridge method as
well as ohmmeter method to take the
output.
The change in resistance of material
per unit change in temperature should
be as large as possible.
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RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE
DETECTOR (RTD)
The material should have high value of
resistivity to get required value in less

space.
Resistance and temperature relation
should be continuous and stable.
Platinum, nickel and copper are the
most commonly used.
Tungsten and nickel alloy are also
used.
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5/9/2012
APPLICATIONS OF RTD
They can be used in average and
differential temp. measurement.

Differential temp. sensing to an
accuracy of 0.05 have been
accomplished in a nuclear reactor
coolant heat rise application.
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Variable Capacitance Type

Transducer
A capacitor is a pair of parallel plates
with some insulating dielectric material

between them, which can be used to
store an electrostatic charge.
Capacitive transducer is a passive
transducer used for sensing
displacement. It is a primary transducer.
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5/9/2012

Transducer
Capacitive Transducers/Sensors are
extensively used in industrial and

scientific applications.
They are based on changes in
capacitance in response to physical
variations.
These sensors find many diverse
applications but main are related to the
measurements of displacement.
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Transducer
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Principle Of Capacitive Type

Transducer
Capacitive Transducers measure the
displacement by measuring the change in

capacitance.
Where capacitance is given by,
C= A/D.
Where C= Capacitance in Farads
A=Area of cross section of plates in square
meters
D=Distance between two plates in meters
=Dielectric
Constant
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5/9/2012
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Transducer
Means change in capacitance occurs

due to:
Change in overlapped area of plates
Change in distance between the two
plates
Change in dielectric medium.
Capacitance may be changed either
mechanically or electronically.
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Transducer
o The
variable capacitance used to convert

physical phenomena into electrical
signals is called a variable capacitance
transducer.
o As there are no moving is no wear and
the life expectancy quoted is 200 years.
o The major problem with these
transducers is their high impedence
which makes them very suspectible to
noise.
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Advantages Of Capacitive
Transducer
Low Hysteresis
Good linearity
Highly sensitive
Stability
Repeatability
Resolution as small as 0.003mm can be
obtained
Static pressure measurement capability.
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Disadvantages Of Capacitive
Transducer
High impedance output.
High temperature sensitivity.
Need for complex electronics.

Dirt may vary the output.
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Capacitive Transducer(For
Thickness Measurement)
Capacitive transducer can also be used
to measure the thickness of the material.

This method of measuring thickness is
used in case the material to be tested is
an insulator.
Material whose thickness is to be
measured is placed in between the two
metal plates forming a parallel plate
capacitor.
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Capacitance of the parallel plate
capacitor is given by
C = A/D
where C= Capacitance in farads
A=Area of cross section of plates in
square meters
D=Distance between two plates in
meters
=Dielectric Constant
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Dielectric Gauge(For Liquid Level

Measurement)
Capacitive transducers can be used in
liquids and free flowing solids for

continuous level measurement.
Materials placed between the plates of
a capacitor increase the capacitance by
the factor known as the dielectric
constant of the material.
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Measurement)
When two capacitor plates are partially
immersed in a nonconductive liquid, the

capacitance CD is given by:
CD = (Ca**d + Ca )/r
Where Ca = Capacitance with no liquid
= Dielectric constant of liquid between
the plates
r = Height of the plates
d = Depth or level of the liquid between
the plates
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Measurement)
There are large variations in dielectric
constant with temperature, so that

temperature correction may be needed.
The liquid level is given by:
d = (Cd-Ca)r/Ca
This type of sensors are widely used for
chemical and petrochemical industries;
and can be used for a wide range of
temperature(-40 to 200 0C) and pressure
2).
variation
(25
to
60
kg/cm
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Variable Inductance Type

Transducer
Inductance is another property of electric
circuits which can be used in

transducers. If a length of wire is wound
into a coil and an electrical current
passes through it a magnetic field is
generated.
If the current varies the magnetic field
varies and this induces other currents in
the coil which tend to oppose the
original.
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Variable Inductance Type

Transducer
Self inductance is a measure of this effects
and is given by:

L= N2u0urA/l henries
Where, N is the number of turns in the coil
A is the cross section area of the coil in
metres2
l is the length of the coils in metres
u0 is the permeability of free space
(vacuum)=4*10-7 H/m
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Linear Variable Differential

Transducer (LVDT)
LVDT is used for the measurement of
displacement.
It is the passive transducer.
Supply is provided to the middle coil
and outputs is taken across the other
two coils.
Differential amplifier is used to measure
the differential output from the windings.
The output is an AC waveform.
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Linear Variable Differential

Transducer(LVDT)
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Why use LVDT?

Friction Free Operation
NO mechanical contact between core
and coil (usually)

Infinite Mechanical Life
Infinite Resolution
Electromagnetic coupling
Limited only by electrical noise
Low risk of damage
Most LVDTs have open bore holes
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Why use LVDT?

Null Point Repeatability
Zero displacement can be measured
Single Axis Sensitivity
Effects of other axes are not felt on
the axis of interest

Environmentally Robust
Stable/Strong sensors good for
structural engineering tests.
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Underlying Principle Of LVDT

In the null position, the magnetic field
generates currents of equal magnitude

in both secondary coils.
When the core is moved, there will be
more magnetic flux in one coil than the
other resulting in different currents and
therefore different voltages.
This variation in voltages is linearly
proportional to displacement.
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Underlying Principle Of LVDT
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Advantages Of LVDT
Measurement resolution is almost
infinite.
Negligible hysteresis.
High signal to noise ratio and low output
impedance.
Relative to low cost.
No permanent damage to the LVDT if
measurements exceed the designed
range.
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5/9/2012
Disadvantages Of LVDT
Presence of harmonics in the excitation
voltage.
Stray capacitance also affects output.
Non zero output of low magnitude when
the core is in the null position.
The core must contact directly or
indirectly with the measured surface
which is not possible or desirable.
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5/9/2012
Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

Perhaps the most common device
around today is the pressure gauge

which utilizes a bourdon tube as its
sensing elements.
Bourdon : A bourdon tube is a curved,
hollow tube with the process pressure
applied to the fluid in the tube. The
pressure in the tube causes the tube to
deform or uncoil. The pressure can be
determined from the mechanical
displacement of the pointer connected to
the Bourdon tube. Typical shapes for
the tube are C (normally for local
display),
and helical.
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5/9/2012
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Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

Bourdon tubes are generally
are of three types;
1. C-type
2. Helical type
3. Spiral type
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SUMMARY
There are some other types of
transducers also , such as:

Solid state temperature sensor
PWM Sensors
Thermocouple
Piezoelectric Transducer
Photoelectric Devices
Bimetallic Thermometer
Ultrasonic Flow-meters
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5/9/2012

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TRANSDUCERS:

PUNJAB EDUSAT SOCIETY

PUNJAB EDUSAT SOCIETY

electronic, or electromechanical, that

PUNJAB EDUSAT SOCIETY

processes upon the actual input.

PUNJAB EDUSAT SOCIETY

PUNJAB EDUSAT SOCIETY

an external power supply to provide an

PUNJAB EDUSAT SOCIETY

without any other form of energy

PUNJAB EDUSAT SOCIETY

power supply in order to amplifies the input

PUNJAB EDUSAT SOCIETY

Basic Requirements Of Transducer

prime requirement. A transducer having linear

PUNJAB EDUSAT SOCIETY

Basic Requirements Of Transducer

robust in construction. It should be

PUNJAB EDUSAT SOCIETY

Basic Requirements Of Transducer

should be highly reliable and stable it should be

PUNJAB EDUSAT SOCIETY

Basic Requirements Of Transducer

from hysteresis. It should not introduce

PUNJAB EDUSAT SOCIETY

Variable Resistance Type Transducer

one of the most commonly used types

PUNJAB EDUSAT SOCIETY

Variable Resistance Type Transducer

the secondary transducers, where the

PUNJAB EDUSAT SOCIETY

Principle Of Working Of Variable

elements work on the principle that the

PUNJAB EDUSAT SOCIETY

Principle Of Working Of Variable

p is resistivity of the resistance material.

Where is called as resistivity of the

material and it is constant for he

PUNJAB EDUSAT SOCIETY

Variable Resistance Type

Some of the variable resistive

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three-terminal resistor with a sliding

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measured between the fixed position of

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resistors, generally composed of

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Coefficient(PTC) units are available,

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sensitivity is loss of linearity.

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generally of the form:

R0= Resistance at temp. T0,

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-200C to +1000C.NTCs should be

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shapes, sizes and values.