AOSS 321, Winter 2009

Earth System Dynamics

Lecture 8
2/3/2009
Christiane Jablonowski
cjablono@umich.edu
734-763-6238

Eric Hetland
ehetland@umich.edu
734-615-3177

What are the fundamental forces in

the Earths system?

Pressure gradient force

Viscous force
Gravitational force
Apparent forces: Centrifugal and Coriolis
Can you think of other classical forces and
would they be important in the Earths system?
Electromagnetic force

Total Force is the sum of all of these forces.

Apparent forces: A physical approach

Check out Unit 6 (winds), frames 20 & 21:

http://www.atmos.washington.edu/2005Q1/101/CD/MAIN3.swf

Circle Basics
Arc length s =
r

ds
d
=r
dt
dt
d

dt
ds
v
dt

r (radius)

... Magnitude

s = r

Centripetal acceleration:
towards the axis of rotation

r
r
r d r
dv
= v
dt
dt r

centripetal

r (radius)

centrifugal

r
v+ v

v
r

v
=
v
v

... Magnitude

Centripetal force: for our purposes

Directed toward
the axis of
rotation

r
r
r d r
dv
= v
dt
dt r
d
( )
dt
r
v = r
r
dv
2 r
= r
dt

Now we are going to think about the

Earth
The preceding was a schematic to think about the
centripetal acceleration problem.
Remember Newtons third law:
"For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

View from fixed system: uniform centripetal

acceleration towards the axis of rotation
View from rotating system: centrifugal
acceleration (directed outward) equal and
opposite to the centripetal acceleration (directed
inward)

What direction does the Earths

centrifugal force point?
axis of rotation

Earth

2R

this is a vector force

directed away from
the axis of rotation

Earths angular speed of rotation:

7.292 105 s1

Magnitude of R

Magnitude (length) of vector R

R = |R| = a cos()
R

Earth

Earths radius
latitude

Tangential coordinate system

Place a coordinate
system on the surface.

y
R

z
x

x = west-east (longitude)
y = south-north (latitude)
z = local vertical

a: Earths radius
Earth

: latitude

Angle between R and axes

z
R

x
a

-y

Reversed (negative)
y direction
a: Earths radius

Earth

: latitude

Assume magnitude of vector in

direction R

Earth

B: Vector of magnitude B
a
= latitude

Vertical component

z component = B cos()
R

Earth

a
= latitude

Meridional component

Earth

a
= latitude

-y component = -B sin()

What direction does the Earths

centrifugal force point?

2R

R
a

Earth

So there is a component
that is in the same
coordinate direction as
gravity (and local vertical).
And there is a component
pointing towards the equator
We are now explicitly
considering a coordinate
system tangent to the
Earths surface.

What direction does the Earths

centrifugal force point?

So there is a component
that is in the same
coordinate direction as
gravitational acceleration:
2R
~ a2cos2()

= latitude

Earth

And there is a component

pointing towards the
equator
~ - a2cos()sin()

What direction does the gravitational

acceleration point?
2

F
a
r
*
= g0
2
m
(a + z) r

R
a (radius)

Earth

So we re-define
gravitational acceleration g*
as gravity g
F
m
F
m

? * a 2
?r
2
2
= ?g0
+ a cos ()?
2
? (a + z)
?r
r
= g
r

What direction does the Earths

centrifugal force point?
Sphere

2R

R
g*

g: gravity

Earth

And there is a
component pointing
towards the equator.
The Earth has bulged to
compensate for the
equatorward component
(how much?)
Hence we dont have to
consider the horizontal
component explicitly.

Centrifugal force of Earth

Vertical component incorporated into
re-definition of gravity.
Horizontal component does not need to be
considered when we consider a coordinate
system tangent to the Earths surface,
because the Earth has bulged to compensate
for this force.
Hence, centrifugal force does not appear
EXPLICITLY in the equations.

Our momentum equation so far

r
r
dv
1
2 r
= p + (v) + g + other forces
dt

Material
derivative of
the velocity

vector v

Pressure
gradient
force

Viscous
force

Gravity force =
gravitational force +
centrifugal force

r r*
r

2
g gk= g + R
with g = 9.81 m s-2

Where is the low pressure center?

How and why
does the
system rotate?

Apparent forces:
A physical approach
Consider a dynamics field experiment in which
one student takes a position on a merry-goround and another student takes a position
above the ground in an adjacent tree.
Merry-go-round is spinning, a ball is pushed
On the Merry-go-round: the ball is deflected
from its path. This is due to the Coriolis force.
http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)
/guides/mtr/fw/crls.rxml

Apparent forces:
Coriolis force
Observe the flying aircrafts
http://www.classzone
.com/books/earth_science/terc/content/visuali
zations/es1904/es1904page01.
cfm?chapter_no=visualization

What happens?
http://www.physics.orst.edu/~mcintyre/coriolis/

Effects of the Coriolis force

on motions on Earth

Angular momentum
Like momentum, angular momentum is conserved in
the absence of torques (forces) which change the
angular momentum.
The absolute angular momentum per unit mass of
atmosphere is

L = (acos+ u)acos
This comes from considering the conservation of
momentum of a body in constant body rotation in the
polar coordinate system.
Coriolis
force & angular momentum: Check out Unit 6,

frames 25-32
http://www.atmos.washington.edu/2005Q1/101/CD/MAIN3.swf

Angular speed
(circle)

v = r

r (radius) v

Earths angular momentum (1)

What is the speed of this
point due only to the
rotation of the Earth?

Earth

a
= latitude

v = R

Earths angular momentum (2)

Angular momentum is

L = vR
R

a
= latitude

Earth

Earths angular momentum (3)

Angular momentum due
only to rotation of Earth
is

Earth

a
= latitude

L = vR
L = R

Earths angular momentum (4)

Angular momentum due
only to rotation of Earth
is

a
= latitude

Earth

L = R

L = a cos ()
2

Angular momentum of parcel (1)

Assume there is some x
velocity, u. Angular
momentum associated
with this velocity is

Earth

a
= latitude

Lu uR

Total angular momentum

Angular momentum due
both to rotation of Earth
and relative velocity u is

Earth

L R 2 uR
L a cos ( ) ua cos( )
2

L a cos( )(a cos( ) u )

u
2
L R ( )
R

Displace parcel south (1)

(Conservation of angular momentum)

R
a

Earth

Lets imagine we move

our parcel of air south
(or north). What
happens? y

Displace parcel south (2)

(Conservation of angular momentum)
We get some change
R (R gets longer)

R
a

Earth

For the southward

displacement we get

R y

Displace parcel south (3)

(Conservation of angular momentum)

R
a

But if angular momentum is

conserved, then u must
change.
y

u
L R ( )
R
2

u u
( R R) (
)
R R
2

Earth

Displace parcel south (4)

(Conservation of angular momentum)
Expand right hand side, ignore second-order
difference terms, solve for u (change in eastward
velocity after southward displacement):

u
u u
2
R ( ) ( R R) (
)
R
R R
2

u
u R R
R

Displace parcel south (5)

(Conservation of angular momentum)
For our southward displacement R y

u
u y y
R

u
u y
y
a

Displace parcel south (6)

(Conservation of angular momentum)
Divide by t:

u
y
u
y
2sin()
+
sin()
t
t acos()
t

Displace parcel south (7)

(Conservation of angular momentum)
Take the limit t0:

?dy
du ?
u
= ?2sin() +
sin()?
dt ?
acos()
?dt

du
uv
= 2vsin() + tan()
dt
a
Total
derivative

Coriolis term

Metric term

Displace parcel south (8)

(Conservation of angular momentum)

du
uv
= 2vsin() + tan()
dt
a
Whats this? Curvature or metric term. It takes
into
account that y curves, it is defined on the
surface of the Earth. More later.
Remember this is ONLY FOR a NORTH-SOUTH
displacement.

Displace parcel up (1)

(Conservation of angular momentum)

R
a

Earth

Lets imagine we move

our parcel of air up (or
down). What happens?
z

Displace parcel up (2)

(Conservation of angular momentum)
We get some change
R (R gets longer)

Earth

For our upward

displacement

R z

Displace parcel up (3)

(Conservation of angular momentum)
Do the same form of derivation
(as we did for the southward displacement)
Expand right hand side, ignore second-order
difference terms, solve for u (change in eastward
velocity after vertical displacement):

u
u u
2
R ( ) ( R R) (
)
R
R R
2

u
u R R
R

Displace parcel up (4)

(Conservation of angular momentum)
u
u 2R R
R
u
? u 2cosz
cosz
acos
u
? u 2cosz z
a
Divide by
t:

u
z u z
2cos
t
t a t

Displace parcel up (5)

(Conservation of angular momentum)
Take the limit t0:

du
uw
= 2w cos()
dt
a

Remember this is ONLY FOR a

VERTICAL displacement.

So far we got
(Conservation of angular momentum)
From N-S
displacement

From upward
displacement

du
uv
uw
= 2vsin() + tan() 2w cos()
dt
a
a

Total
derivative

Coriolis

Metric

Coriolis

Metric

term

term

term

term

Displace parcel east (1)

(Conservation of angular momentum)

R
a

Earth

Lets imagine we move

our parcel of air east (or
west). What happens?
x

Displace parcel east (2)

(Conservation of angular momentum)
Well, there is no change
of R.

R
a

Earth

But the parcel is now

rotating faster than the
earth:
Centrifugal force on
the object will be
increased

Displace parcel east (3)

(Conservation of angular momentum)
Remember: Angular momentum

u
L R ( )
R
2

The east displacement changed u (=dx/dt).

Hence again we have a question of
conservation of angular momentum.
We will think about this as an excess (or
deficit) of centrifugal force per unit mass
relative to that from the Earth alone.

Displace parcel east (4)

(Conservation of angular momentum)
Remember: centrifugal force per unit
mass

centrifugal

= R
2

Therefore: excess centrifugal force (per unit

mass): centrifugal
u 2
2

Fexcess

= ( +

) R R

2u
u
=
R+ 2 R
R
R
Coriolis term

Metric term

This is a vector force

with two terms!

Displace parcel east (5)

(Conservation of angular momentum)

centrifugal
Fexcess

Earth

2u
u2
=
R+ 2 R
R
R

Vector with component in

north-south and vertical
direction:
Split the two directions.

Displace parcel east (6)

(Conservation of angular momentum)

Earth

For the Coriolis

component magnitude is
2u.
For the curvature (or
metric) term the
magnitude is u2/(a cos())

Displace parcel east (7)

(Conservation of angular momentum)

centrifugal
excess

(F
R

Earth

2u
acossin
) j =
acos

u2
2
acossin
2
a cos
u2
= 2usin tan
a
Meridional (N-S) component

Displace parcel east (8)

(Conservation of angular momentum)

centrifugal
excess

(F
R

Earth

2u
acoscos
) k =
acos

u2
+ 2
acoscos
2
a cos
u2
= 2ucos+
a
Vertical component

Displace parcel east (9)

(Conservation of angular momentum)
These forces in their appropriate component
directions are
2

dv
u
2u sin( ) tan( )
dt
a
2
dw
u
2u cos( )
dt
a

Coriolis force and metric terms in 3-D

So lets collect together all Coriolis forces and
metric terms:

du
uv
uw
= 2v sin() + tan() 2w cos()
dt
a
a
? vw ?
dv
u2
= 2usin() tan()? ?
? a ?
dt
a
2 ?
2 ?
dw
u
v
= 2ucos() + ?+ ?
dt
a ? a ?
2 additional metric
terms (due to more
rigorous derivation,
Holton 2.2, 2.3)

Coriolis force and metric terms

If the vertical velocity w is small (w close to 0 m/s),
we can make the following approximation:

du
uv
= 2v sin() + tan()
dt
a
2
dv
u
= 2usin() tan()
dt
a
Define the Coriolis parameter f:

f 2sin()

Coriolis force and metric terms

For synoptic scale (large-scale) motions |u| << R .
Then the metric terms (last terms on previous slide)
are small in comparison to the Coriolis terms. We
discuss this in more detail in our next class (scale
analysis).
This leads to the approximation of the Coriolis
force:

du
= 2v sin = fv
dt Co

dv
= 2usin = fu
dt Co

Coriolis force
For synoptic scale (large-scale) motions:

du
= fv
dt Co

dv
= fu
dt Co

Vector notation:
r
r r
dv
= f ( k v)
dt Co

v= (u,v,0) is the horizontal velocity vector

where

and k= (0,0,1) is the

vertical
unit vector.

Since -k v is a vector rotated 90 to the right of v

it shows that the Coriolis force deflects and

changes only the direction of motion, not the speed.

Effects of the Coriolis force on

motions on Earth

Summary: Coriolis force

Fictitious force only arising in a rotating frame of
reference
Is directed 90 to the right (left) of the wind in the
northern (southern) hemisphere
Increases in proportion to the wind speed
Increases with latitude, is zero at the equator.
Does not change the wind speed, only the wind
direction. Why?

Our approximated momentum

equation so far
r
r
r
r
r
dv
1
2
= p + (v) gk+ fv i fuj
dt

+ other forces

Material
derivative

of v

Pressure
gradient
force

Viscous
force

Gravity

Coriolis

force

forces

Highs and Lows

In Northern
Hemisphere velocity
is deflected to the
right by the Coriolis
force

Motion initiated by pressure gradient

Opposed by viscosity

Class exercise: Coriolis force

Suppose a ballistic missile is fired due eastward at
43 N latitude (assume f 10-4 s-1 at 43 N ). If the
missile travels 1000 km at a horizontal speed u 0 =
1000 m/s, by how much is the missile deflected
from its eastward path by the Coriolis force?
du
= 2v sin() 2w cos()
dt Co

dv
Coriolis forces:
= 2usin()
dt Co

dw
= 2ucos()
dt Co