Chapter 0

Cell Structure a
nd Function

Outline
Cell Theory
Cell Size
Prokaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic Cells
Organelles
Nucleus
Endomembrane System
Cytoskeleton
Centrioles, Cilia, and Flagella

Cell Structure
and Function

Cell Theory

Cell Structure
and Function

A unifying concept in biology

Originated from the work of biologists
Schleiden and Schwann in 1838-9
States that:
All organisms are composed of cells
German botanist Matthais Schleiden in 1838
German zoologist Theodor Schwann in 1839

All cells come only from preexisting cells

German physician Rudolph Virchow in 1850s

Smallest unit of life

Organisms and
Cells

Sizes of Living
Things

Cell Size

Cell Structure
and Function

Most much smaller than one millimeter (mm)

Some as small as one micrometer ( m)
Size restricted by Surface/Volume (S/V) ratio
Surface is membrane, across which cell
acquires nutrients and expels wastes
Volume is living cytoplasm, which demands
nutrients and produces wastes
As cell grows, volume increases faster than
surface
Cells specialized in absorption modified to
greatly increase surface area per unit volume

Surface to Volume Ratio

TotalSurfaceArea
(HeightWidthNumberOfSidesNumberOfCubes)
96cm2
192cm2
384cm2
TotalVolume
(HeightWidthLengthXNumberOfCubes)
64cm3
64cm3
64cm3
SurfaceAreaPerCube/VolumePerCube
(SurfaceArea/Volume)
1.5/1
3/1
6/1

science
focus

Cell Structure
Microscopy Today:
and Function
Compound Light Microscope

Light passed through specimen

Focused by glass lenses
Image formed on human retina
Max magnification about 1000X
Resolves objects separated by 0.2 m, 500X
better than human eye

Microscopy Today:
Transmission Electron Microscope
Abbreviated T.E.M.

science
focus

Cell Structure
and Function

Electrons passed through specimen

Focused by magnetic lenses
Image formed on fluorescent screen
Similar to TV screen
Image is then photographed

Max magnification 1000,000s X

Resolves objects separated by 0.00002 m,
100,000X better than human eye

science
focus

Microscopy Today:
Scanning Electron Microscope

Cell Structure
and Function

10

Abbreviated S.E.M.
Specimen sprayed with thin coat of metal
Electron beam scanned across surface of
specimen
Metal emits secondary electrons

Emitted electrons focused by magnetic lenses

Image formed on fluorescent screen
Similar to TV screen
Image is then photographed

11

Microscopy Today:
Immunofluorescence Light Microscope
Antibodies developed against a specific
protein

science
focus

Cell Structure
and Function

Fluorescent dye molecule attached to antibody

molecules
Specimen exposed to fluorescent antibodies

Ultra-violet light (black ligt) passed through

specimen

Fluorescent dye glows in color where antigen

is located
Emitted light is focused by glass lenses onto
human retina

Allows mapping distribution of a specific

protein in cell

science
focus

Microscopy Today:
Confocal Microscopy

Cell Structure
and Function

Narrow laser beam scanned across

transparent specimen
Beam is focused at a very thin plane
Allows microscopist to optically section a
specimen
Sections made at different levels
Allows assembly of 3d image on computer
screen that can be rotated

12

science
focus

Microscopy Today:
Video-enhanced Contrast Microscopy
Cell Structure
and Function

13

Great for specimens with low contrast, like

living cells
Image is captured by TV camera instead of
eye
Image is then tweaked by adjusting contrast
Darkest part of image is made black
Lightest part of image is made white
All parts in between made shades of gray

Also allows various shades to be converted to

different colors for more contrast

Microscopy Today:
Phase Contrast Microscopy
Great for transparent specimens with low
contrast, like living cells
Some organelles have higher density than
others

science
focus

Cell Structure
and Function

14

Speed of light is affected by density

Light passes more slowly through high
density than low density
Light waves entering a specimen in phase
exit some parts of the specimen out of phase

Microscope shows only light that is slower or

faster
Causes transparent organelles to glow

Microscopy and Amoeba

proteus

15

Microscopy and Cheek

Cells

16

Prokaryotic Cells:
Domains
Lack a membrane-bound nucleus
Structurally simple
Two domains:
Bacteria
Three Shapes
Bacillus

(rod)
Coccus (spherical)
Spirilla (spiral)

Archaea
Live in extreme habitats

Cell Structure
and Function

17

Shapes of Bacterial
Cells

18

Prokaryotic Cells: Visual

Summary

19

Prokaryotic Cells:
The Envelope

Cell Structure
and Function

Cell Envelopes
Glycocalyx
Layer of polysaccharides outside cell wall
May be slimy and easily removed, or
Well organized and resistant to removal
(capsule)

Cell wall
Plasma membrane
Like in eukaryotes
Form internal pouches (mesosomes)

20

Prokaryotic Cells:
Cytoplasm & Appendages

Cell Structure
and Function

21

Cytoplasm
Semifluid solution
Bounded by plasma membrane
Contains inclusion bodies Stored granules of
various substances

Appendages
Flagella Provide motility
Fimbriae small, bristle-like fibers that sprout
from the cell surface
Sex pili rigid tubular structures used to pass
DNA from cell to cell

Eukaryotic Cells
Domain Eukarya
Protists
Fungi
Plants
Animals

Cells contain:
Membrane-bound nucleus
Specialized organelles
Plasma membrane

Cell Structure
and Function

22

Eukaryotic Cells :
Organelles

Cell Structure
and Function

23

Compartmentalization:
Allows eukaryotic cells to be larger than
prokaryotic cells
Isolates reactions from others

Two classes:
Endomembrane system:
Organelles that communicate with one another
via

membrane channels
Via small vesicles

Energy related organelles

Mitochondria & chloroplasts
Basically independent & self-sufficient

Plasma
Membrane

24

Hypothesized Origin of Eukaryotic

Cells

25

science
focus

Cell Fractionation, and

Differential Centrifugation

Cell Structure
and Function

26

Cell fractionation is the breaking apart of

cellular components
Differential centrifugation:
Allows separation of cell parts
Separated out by size & density

Works like spin cycle of washer

The faster the machine spins, the smaller
the parts that settled out

Science
Focus

Grind
cells

Centrifuge
@ 600 g

Sediment
Sediment
contains
contains
nuclei
nuclei

Cell Fractionation, and

Differential
Centrifugation

27

Figure4C
Then
centrifuge
longer
@ 15,000 g

Then
centrifuge
even longer
@ 100,000 g

Sediment
Sediment
contains
contains
mitochondria,
mitochondria,
lysosomes
lysosomes

Sediment
Sediment
contains
contains
ribosomes,
ribosomes,
ER
ER

Soluble
Soluble
portion
portionof
of
cytoplasm.
cytoplasm.
No
No
sediment
sediment

Animal Cell Anatomy

28

Plant Cell Anatomy

29

Nucleus

Cell Structure
and Function

30

Command center of cell, usually near center

Separated from cytoplasm by nuclear
envelope
Consists of double layer of membrane
Nuclear pores permit exchange between
nucleoplasm & cytoplasm

Contains chromatin in semifluid nucleoplasm

Chromatin contains DNA of genes
Condenses to form chromosomes

Dark nucleolus composed of rRNA

Produces subunits of ribosomes

Anatomy of the
Nucleus

31

Ribosomes

Cell Structure
and Function

Serve in protein synthesis

Composed of rRNA
Consists of a large subunit and a small
subunit
Subunits made in nucleolus

May be located:
On the endoplasmic reticulum (thereby
making it rough), or
Free in the cytoplasm, either singly or in
groups called polyribosomes

32

Nucleus, Ribosomes, &

ER

Figure4.9

33

Endomembrane System

Cell Structure
and Function

Restrict enzymatic reactions to specific

compartments within cell
Consists of:
Nuclear envelope
Membranes of endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Vesicles
Several types
Transport materials between organelles of
system

34

Endomembrane System:
The Endoplasmic Reticulum

Cell Structure
and Function

Rough ER
Studded with ribosomes on cytoplasmic side
Protein anabolism
Synthesizes proteins
Modifies proteins
Adds

sugar to protein
Results in glycoproteins

Smooth ER
No ribosomes
Synthesis of lipids

35

Endoplasmic
Reticulum

36

Golgi Apparatus

37

Lysosomes

38

Endomembrane System:
The Golgi Apparatus

Cell Structure
and Function

Golgi Apparatus
Consists of 3-20 flattened, curved saccules
Resembles stack of hollow pancakes
Modifies proteins and lipids
Packages them in vesicles
Receives vesicles from ER on cis face
Prepares for shipment in vesicles from trans
face
Within

cell

Export

from cell (secretion, exocytosis)

39

Endomembrane System:
Lysosomes

Cell Structure
and Function

40

Membrane-bound vesicles (not in plants)

Produced by the Golgi apparatus
Low pH
Contain lytic enzymes
Digestion of large molecules
Recycling of cellular resources
Apoptosis (programmed cell death, like tadpole
losing tail)

Some genetic diseases

Caused by defect in lysosomal enzyme
Lysosomal storage diseases (Tay-Sachs)

Endomembrane System: A Visual Summary41

Peroxisomes

Cell Structure
and Function

Similar to lysosomes
Membrane-bounded vesicles
Enclose enzymes

However
Enzymes synthesized by free ribosomes in
cytoplasm (instead of ER)
Active in lipid metabolism
Catalyze reactions that produce hydrogen
peroxide H2O2
Toxic
Broken down to water & O2 by catalase

42

Peroxisome
s

43

Vacuoles

Cell Structure
and Function

Membranous sacs that are larger than

vesicles
Store materials that occur in excess
Others very specialized (contractile vacuole)

Plants cells typically have a central vacuole

Up to 90% volume of some cells
Functions in:
Storage of water, nutrients, pigments, and
waste products
Development of turgor pressure
Some functions performed by lysosomes in
other eukaryotes

44

Vacuoles

45

Energy-Related Organelles:
Chloroplast Structure

Cell Structure
and Function

46

Bounded by double membrane

Inner membrane infolded
Forms disc-like thylakoids, which are stacked
to form grana
Suspended in semi-fluid stroma

Green due to chlorophyll

Green photosynthetic pigment
Found ONLY in inner membranes of
chloroplast

Energy-Related Organelles:
Chloroplasts

Cell Structure
and Function

Captures light energy to drive cellular

machinery
Photosynthesis
Synthesizes carbohydrates from CO2 & H2O
Makes own food using CO2 as only carbon
source
Energy-poor compounds converted to enery
rich compounds

47

Energy-Related
Organelles:
Chloroplast Structure

48

Energy-Related Organelles:
Mitochondria

Cell Structure
and Function

49

Bounded by double membrane

Cristae Infoldings of inner membrane that
encloses matrix
Matrix Inner semifluid containing respiratory
enzymes

Involved in cellular respiration

Produce most of ATP utilized by the cell

Energy-Related
Organelles:
Mitochondrial Structure

50

The Cytoskeleton

Cell Structure
and Function

Maintains cell shape

Assists in movement of cell and organelles
Three types of macromolecular fibers
Actin Filaments
Intermediate Filaments
Microtubules

Assemble and disassemble as needed

51

The Cytoskeleton:
Actin Filaments

Cell Structure
and Function

Extremely thin filaments like twisted pearl

necklace
Dense web just under plasma membrane
maintains cell shape
Support for microvilli in intestinal cells
Intracellular traffic control
For moving stuff around within cell
Cytoplasmic streaming

Function in pseudopods of amoeboid cells

Pinch mother cell in two after animal mitosis
Important component in muscle contraction
(other is myosin)

52

The Cytoskeleton:
Actin Filament
Operation

53

The Cytoskeleton:
Intermediate Filaments

Cell Structure
and Function

54

Intermediate in size between actin filaments

and microtubules
Rope-like assembly of fibrous polypeptides
Vary in nature
From tissue to tissue
From time to time

Functions:
Support nuclear envelope
Cell-cell junctions, like those holding skin cells
tightly together

The Cytoskeleton:
Microtubules

Cell Structure
and Function

Hollow cylinders made of two globular

proteins called and tubulin
Spontaneous pairing of and tubulin
molecules form structures called dimers
Dimers then arrange themselves into tubular
spirals of 13 dimers around
Assembly:
Under control of Microtubule Organizing
Center (MTOC)
Most important MTOC is centrosome

Interacts with proteins kinesin and dynein to

cause movement of organelles

55

The Cytoskeleton:
Microtubule
Operation

56

Microtubular Arrays:
Centrioles

Cell Structure
and Function

57

Short, hollow cylinders

Composed of 27 microtubules
Microtubules arranged into 9 overlapping
triplets

One pair per animal cell

Located in centrosome of animal cells
Oriented at right angles to each other
Separate during mitosis to determine plane of
division

May give rise to basal bodies of cilia and

flagella

Cytoskeleton
:
Centrioles

58

Microtubular arrays:
Cilia and Flagella

Cell Structure
and Function

Hair-like projections from cell surface that aid

in cell movement
Very different from prokaryote flagella
Outer covering of plasma membrane
Inside this is a cylinder of 18 microtubules
arranged in 9 pairs
In center are two single microtubules
This 9 + 2 pattern used by all cilia & flagella

In eukaryotes, cilia are much shorter than

flagella
Cilia move in coordinated waves like oars
Flagella move like a propeller or cork screw

59

Structure of a
Flagellum

60

Review
Cell Theory
Cell Size
Prokaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic Cells
Organelles
Nucleus
Endomembrane System
Cytoskeleton
Centrioles, Cilia, and Flagella

Cell Structure
and Function

61

Ending Slide Chapter 04

Cell Structure a
nd Function