TSAR2 CH 05 R

TEN STEPS to
ADVANCED READING
SECOND EDITION
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SECOND EDITION
TEN STEPS
to
ADVANCED
READING
John Langan
2013 Townsend Press
Chapter 5
RELATIONSHIPS II
CHAPTER 5 Relationships II
In Chapter 4, you saw two common types of relationships:

Relationships that involve addition
Relationships that involve time
This chapter explains four other types of relationships:
Relationships that involve illustration
Relationships that involve
comparison and contrast
Relationships that involve
cause and effect
Relationships that involve a
problem and solution
Most of these relationships involve transitional words and

phrases, which are like signs on the road that guide travelers.
1 Illustration
Words That Show Illustration
Which item below is easier to understand?
A. Some common beliefs are really myths. Getting a chill will not
give you a cold.
B. Some common beliefs are really myths. For instance, getting a
chill will not give you a cold.
Illustration / Words That Show Illustration
A. Some common beliefs are really myths. Getting a chill will not
give you a cold.
The second item is easier to follow. The words for

instance make it clear that the belief a chill will
lead to a cold is a myth.
For instance and other words and phrases like it are

illustration words.
Illustration words indicate that an author will provide

one or more examples to develop and clarify a given idea.
Here are some common words that show illustration:

Illustration Words
Examples
Although they are childrens stories, famous fairy tales

such as Little Red Riding Hood and Snow White are
clearly filled with dark symbolic meanings.
A number of famous historical figures, including Beethoven,
Charles Dickens, and Winston Churchill, suffered from
depression.
In these examples, notice how the illustration words

signal that one or more examples are coming.
Examples
Although they are childrens stories, famous fairy tales

such as Little Red Riding Hood and Snow White are
clearly filled with dark symbolic meanings.
A number of famous historical figures, including Beethoven,
Charles Dickens, and Winston Churchill, suffered from
depression.
Illustration
The Definition and Example Pattern
The definition and example pattern of organization

includes just what its name suggests: a definition and
one or more examples.
Illustration / The Definition and Example Pattern
See if you can arrange the following sentences in a

logical order. Which sentence should come first?
Second? Third?
A. For instance, anyone who has ever played a card game such as hearts is
familiar with the heuristic to Get rid of high cards first.
B. Informal problems often call for a heuristica rule of thumb that suggests
a course of action without guaranteeing an optimal solution.
C. Another example is the situation in which a student tries to decide whether

to take a particular course and follows the advice to Ask friends how they
liked the instructor.
The sentences should read as follows:

Definition
Example 1
Example 2
Informal problems often call for a heuristica rule of thumb that

suggests a course of action without guaranteeing an optimal solution.
For instance, anyone who has ever played a card game such as hearts is
familiar with the heuristic to Get rid of high cards first. Another
example is the situation in which a student tries to decide whether to
take a particular course and follows the advice to Ask friends how they
This paragraph begins with a definition of the word

heuristic.
The second sentence gives an example
The
thirdFor
sentence
then provides
introduced by the
words
instance.
another example, introduced by the words
Another example.
Informal problems often call for a heuristica rule of thumb that

suggests a course of action without guaranteeing an optimal solution.
For instance, anyone who has ever played a card game such as hearts is
familiar with the heuristic to Get rid of high cards first. Another
example is the situation in which a student tries to decide whether to
take a particular course and follows the advice to Ask friends how they
An important study hint:

Textbook authors often take time to include key
definitions. These ideas and terms are usually set
off in italic or boldface type, and the definitions
are signaled by such words as is, are, is called,
termed, and refers to.
Examples of Definitions in Textbooks
Sound bites are short snippets of information

aimed at dramatizing a news story rather than
explaining its meaning in a substantive way.
A decline in attention that occurs because a
stimulus has become familiar is called
habituation.
Tracking refers to the smooth movements of
the eye used to follow the track of a moving
object.
If an author defines a term, you can assume that

it is important enough to learn. So when reading
and taking notes on a textbook, always do two
things:
1) Write down key definitions.
2) Write
down
helpful
Examples
of Definitions
in Textbooks
examples of
Sound bites are short snippets of information

definitions.
aimed at dramatizing a news story rather than
explaining its meaning in a substantive way.
A decline in attention that occurs because a
stimulus has become familiar is called
habituation.
Tracking refers to the smooth movements of
the eye used to follow the track of a moving
object.
The following paragraph defines a word and gives an example of it.

(1)The planning fallacy refers to the fact that people consistently overestimate how
quickly and easily they will achieve a goal and underestimate the amount of time or
effort that will be required to reach that goal. (2)In a study that examined the planning
fallacy, college students were asked to list an academic project that had to be completed
within the next week and to estimate when they intended to begin the project, when they
expected to complete the project, and how many hours they expected to put into it. (3)A
week later, the students were asked if they had completed the project and when.
(4)Although all the students had estimated that they would complete the project
comfortably in the time indicated, one week later more than half the projects remained
incomplete. (5)Those that had been completed had typically taken, on average, nearly
five days longer than had been estimated. (6)So much for planning!
What term is being defined?

What term is being defined?

(1)The planning
planning fallacy
fallacy refers to the fact that people consistently overestimate how
Which sentence contains the definition?

Which sentence contains the definition?

Definition
In which sentence does the example begin?

In which sentence does the example begin?

The example begins in sentence 2 and continues

through sentence 5.
Comparison and Contrast
2 Comparison and Contrast

Words That Show Comparison
A. As a fish swims, it moves its tail, applying force against the water.
The water, in turn, propels the fish forward. In a rocket motor,
forces are exerted by hot gases that accelerate out the tail end,
propelling the rocket forward.
B. As a fish swims, it moves its tail, applying force against the water.
The water, in turn, propels the fish forward. Similarly, in a rocket
motor, forces are exerted by hot gases that accelerate out the tail
end, propelling the rocket forward.
Comparison and Contrast / Words That Show Comparison
A. As a fish swims, it moves its tail, applying force against the water.
The water, in turn, propels the fish forward. In a rocket motor,
forces are exerted by hot gases that accelerate out the tail end,
propelling the rocket forward.
In the second item, the transition word similarly

makes it clear that the author is comparing two
forces.
Similarly and words like it are comparison words.

Comparison words signal similarities. Authors use a

comparison transition to show that a second idea is like
the first one in some way.
Here are some common words that show comparison:

Comparison Words
Examples
Very young and very old people resemble one another in

their dependence upon those around them.
Car manufacturers often show beautiful women with their
products, as if to suggest that owning the car will bring social
rewards. In the same way, alcohol ads typically show people in
fun or romantic settings.
Notice how these comparison words show that things are

alike in some way.
Examples
Very young and very old people resemble one another in

their dependence upon those around them.
Car manufacturers often show beautiful women with their
products, as if to suggest that owning the car will bring social
rewards. In the same way, alcohol ads typically show people in
fun or romantic settings.
Words That Show Contrast

A. The movie was boring and pointless. It featured a talented cast and
an award-winning screenwriter.
B. The movie was boring and pointless even though it featured a
talented cast and an award-winning screenwriter.
Comparison and Contrast / Words That Show Contrast
A. The movie was boring and pointless. It featured a talented cast and
an award-winning screenwriter.
The first item is puzzling. What connection does

the writer intend between the first and second
sentences? The words even though in the second
item make it clear that the writer is disappointed
that the movie fell short despite its cast and
screenwriter.
Even though and words and phrases like it are contrast words.
Contrast words signal that an author is pointing out

differences between subjects. A contrast word shows that
two things differ in one or more ways. Contrast words
also inform us that something is going to differ from what
we might expect.
Here are some common words that show contrast:

Contrast Words
Examples
While mammals have internal mechanisms that regulate

body temperature, cold-blooded animals such as lizards
must regulate their temperature by external means, such as
basking on warm sunny rocks.
Corporate executives urged employees to buy the companys
stock despite the fact that they were selling it themselves.
Notice how these contrast words signal that one idea is

different from another idea.
Examples
While mammals have internal mechanisms that regulate

body temperature, cold-blooded animals such as lizards
must regulate their temperature by external means, such as
basking on warm sunny rocks.
Corporate executives urged employees to buy the companys
stock despite the fact that they were selling it themselves.
The Comparison and/or Contrast Pattern
Authors use a comparison

pattern to show how two
things are alike.
Authors use a contrast

pattern to show how two
things are different.
Comparison and Contrast / The Comparison and/or Contrast Pattern
Sometimes an author will compare and contrast in the same

paragraph, pointing out both similarities and differences
between two things.

Second? Third?
A. However, gender differences remain in career choice and
development.
B. Womens labor force participation is approaching that of mens, with
60 percent of adult women (versus 74 percent of men) in the labor
force.
C. At present, married women still subordinate their career goals to
their husbands, especially when children are involved.

Womens labor force participation is approaching that of mens,
with 60 percent of adult women (versus 74 percent of men) in the labor
force. However, gender differences remain in career choice and
development. At present, married women still subordinate their career
goals to their husbands, especially when children are involved.
The paragraph begins with an introductory

statementthat womens labor force participation
main idea,
differences
is becomingThe
comparable
tothat
thatgender
of mens.
remain, is then presented in the sentence
Thethe
sentence
starts
with At
beginning with
contrastthat
word
However.
present gives an example of a significant gender
differencethat women will subordinate their
career choices to their husbands.
The following paragraph will give you a better sense of

the compare and/or contrast pattern.
Men and women, of course, often have different
differentconcerns, so we might expect
the content of their dreams to differand until recently, at least, that has been true.
Typically, women have been more likely than men to dream about children, family
members, familiar characters, friendly interactions, household objects, clothes, and
indoor events. In contrast, men have been more likely than women to dream about
strangers, weapons, violence, sexual activity,
achievement, and outdoor events. But as the lives and concerns of the two sexes
have become more similar, so have their dreams. In one recent study, the content
of mens and womens dreams bore a close resemblance. Only two differences
showed up: Men were more likely to dream about behaving aggressively, while
women were more likely to dream about their anxieties.
The main idea is stated in the first sentence. As is often the

case, the main idea suggests a paragraphs pattern of
organization. Here the transition different is a hint that the
paragraph may be organized as comparison or contrast (or
both).
Men and women, of course, often have different concerns, so we might expect
Is the paragraph
A. comparing?
B. contrasting?
C. comparing and contrasting?
Is the paragraph
A. comparing?
B. contrasting?
C. comparing and contrasting?
What two things are being compared and

contrasted?
What two things are being compared and

contrasted?
Mens dreams and womens dreams.
How many comparison and/or contrast signal

words are used in this paragraph?
Men and women, of course, often have different

differentconcerns, so we might expect
differuntil recently, at least, that has been true.
the content of their dreams to differand
contrast
indoor events. In contrast, men haveInbeen
more likely than women to dream about
have become more similar
similar, so have their dreams. In one recent study, the content
resemblance. Only two differences
differences
of mens and womens dreams bore a close resemblance.
Eight comparison and/or contrast words are used.

Two comparison transitions areSix
used.
contrast
transitions are used.
Cause and Effect
3 Cause and Effect

Words That Show Cause and Effect
A. The best time to buy a car is near the end of the month. Car
dealers often have a monthly quota of cars to sell.
B. The best time to buy a car is near the end of the month because
car dealers often have a monthly quota of cars to sell.
Cause and Effect / Words That Show Cause and Effect
A. The best time to buy a car is near the end of the month. Car
dealers often have a monthly quota of cars to sell.
In the second item, the word because makes

very clear just why the end of the month is the
best time to buy a car.
Because and words like it are cause and effect words.

Cause and effect words signal that the author is

explaining the reason that something happened or
the result of something happening.
Here are some common words that show cause and effect:
Cause and Effect Words
Examples
Young babies have weak necks and relatively heavy heads.

Consequently, it is important to support the babys head
firmly when you hold him or her.
Do not refrigerate potatoes. The reason is that a potatos starch
will turn to sugar at low temperatures, making the vegetable
taste odd.
Notice how these cause and effect words introduce a

reason for something or the results of something.
Examples
Young babies have weak necks and relatively heavy heads.

Consequently, it is important to support the babys head
firmly when you hold him or her.
Do not refrigerate potatoes. The reason is that a potatos starch
will turn to sugar at low temperatures, making the vegetable
taste odd.
Cause and Effect
The Cause and Effect Pattern
Information in a cause-effect pattern addresses the questions

Why does a behavior or event happen? and/or What are the
results of a behavior or event? An author may then discuss
causes, or effects, or both causes and effects.
Cause and Effect / The Cause and Effect Pattern

Second? Third?
A. Also, unemployment leads to an increased rate of attempted and
completed suicides.
B. Not only can it cause economic distress; it can result in health
problems and psychological difficulties as well.
C. Losing ones job is difficult at best and devastating at worst.

Losing ones job is difficult at best and devastating at worst. Not
only can it cause economic distress; it can result in health problems and
psychological difficulties as well. Also, unemployment leads to an
increased rate of attempted and completed suicides.
As the words cause, result in, and leads to

suggest, this paragraph is organized in a cause
and effect pattern.

As the words cause, result in, and leads to

suggest, this paragraph is organized in a cause
The
and
effect pattern.
paragraph
begins with the general idea: Losing
ones job is difficult at best and devastating at
worst. Losing
ones
job
is the cause.
The next
two
sentences
give a detailed
explanation of the results of losing ones job:
economic distress, health problems, psychological
difficulties, increased suicide rate.

Cause: Losing ones job

Effect:
Economic
distress
Effect:
Health
problems
Effect:
Psychological
difficulties
Effect:
Increased
suicide rate

Cause: Losing ones job

Effect:
Economic
distress
Effect:
Health
problems
Effect:
Psychological
difficulties
Effect:
Increased
suicide rate
The following paragraph describes one effect that is

supported by three causes.
During the 1950s and 1960s, airports, bus terminals, and train stations often
charged patrons to use the toilet. People would have to pay a ten- to twenty-five-cent
fee before they entered a stall. Owners hoped that the fee would help pay for the cost
of keeping the restrooms clean. But for several reasons, pay toilets failed miserably.
For one thing, they angered patrons. People accustomed to accessing a restroom for
free became upset when they discovered they had to pay. Many outraged bathroomusers vandalized the stalls and trashed the rooms in response, making cleanup even
more expensive. In addition, pay toilets caused more trouble than they were worth.
Employees had to be called in so often to fix broken locks that companies gradually
realized the extra work wasnt worth a few more dollars. A final explanation why pay
toilets failed is that they triggered lawsuits from womens groups who claimed the
toilets were unfair because females were forced to pay regardless while males could
use the urinals for free. Rather than spending money on high maintenance and
lawsuits, companies opened the bathrooms for free use.
What is the single effect being discussed in the

paragraph?
What is the single effect being discussed in the

paragraph?
of keeping the restrooms clean. But for several reasons
reasons, pay toilets failed miserably.
The failure of pay toilets

The effect is stated as the paragraphs main
idea. The word reasons suggests a cause and
effect pattern.
What are the three causes discussed?

What are the three causes discussed?

of keeping the
restrooms clean. But for several reasons, pay toilets failed miserably.
1
2
3
1
They angered patrons.
They caused more trouble than they were worth.
They triggered lawsuits from womens groups.
What three cause and effect transitions are used in the

paragraph?
What three cause and effect transitions are used in the

paragraph?
of keeping the restrooms clean. But for several reasons
reasons, pay toilets failed miserably.
Cause:
They angered
patrons.
Cause:
They caused more
trouble than
they were worth.
Cause:
They triggered
lawsuits from
womens groups.
Effect: The failure of pay toilets
Cause:
They angered
patrons.
Cause:
They caused more
trouble than
they were worth.
Cause:
They triggered
lawsuits from
womens groups.
Effect: The failure of pay toilets
Problem and Solution
4 Problem and Solution

What is the relationship between these two
sentences?
Speaking in front of a class is something that terrifies many students.
Practicing in front of friends or with a video camera may prevent you
from freezing up on the day of the presentation.
What is the relationship between these two

sentences?
Problem
Speaking in front of a class is something that terrifies many students.
Solution
Practicing in front of friends or with a video camera may prevent you

from freezing up on the day of the presentation.
Unlike the relationship patterns we have studied so far,

the relationship of problem to solution does not involve
transitional words or phrases. Rather, the relationship
usually involves an action that is taken to correct or
resolve a negative situation.
Examples
Problem
Solution
Every year, tens of millions of trees have to be cut down to

provide the paper that goes into book manufacturing.
Electronic readers such as the Kindle, Nook, and iPad
have decreased the need for paper in the book publishing
industry.
Problem
During the War of 1812, the British burned Washington, D.C.,

destroying the Library of Congress.
Solution
Thomas Jefferson immediately offered his entire library of

6,487 books to create a new national library.
Notice how the second sentence offers a solution to the

negative situation (problem) stated in the first sentence.
The Problem and Solution Pattern

Information in a problem-solution pattern addresses the
questions What problem is occurring or has occurred?
and What action or actions have been taken to solve the
problem?
Problem and Solution / The Problem and Solution Pattern

Second? Third?
A. Most try to quit cold turkeythat is, they decide simply not to
smoke again.
B. Smokers who decide to quit must break through both physical
addiction to nicotine and the habit of lighting up at certain times of
day.
C. Others use nicotine replacement products such as nicotine chewing
gum and the nicotine patch.

Problem
Solution 1
Solution 2
Smokers who decide to quit must break through both physical

addiction to nicotine and the habit of lighting up at certain times of day.
Most try to quit cold turkeythat is, they decide simply not to smoke
again. Others use nicotine replacement products such as nicotine
chewing gum and the nicotine patch.
The first sentence introduces the problemthat

sentence offers one
it is difficult toThe
quitsecond
smoking.
solution to the problem ofThe
quitting
third smoking.
sentence
offers another solution to the problem.
The following paragraph uses the problem-solution pattern.

During major earthquakes, most casualties occur when buildings collapse.
There are two ways to keep buildings from collapsing during earthquakes. One
way is to make them stronger, using higher-grade building materials. Another way
is to make them more flexible, so they sway and slide above the shaking ground
rather than crumbling. The latter technology employs an idea called base
isolation. With base isolation, buildings dont sit directly on the ground, but
rather float on systems of ball bearings, springs, and padded cylinders. In the
event of a major earthquake, they sway up to a few feet rather than collapse. The
buildings are surrounded by moats, or buffer zones, so they dont swing into
other structures. Earthquake-resistant buildings save lives. When an 8.8magnitude earthquake struck Chile in February 2010, it killed far fewer people
(about 700) than a 7.0-magnitude earthquake that struck Haiti a month earlier. The
reason was that Chile, a richer and more industrialized nation, had far more
buildings that were built to withstand earthquakes than did Haiti.
What is problem being discussed in the

paragraph?

Problem

The fact that buildings collapse during earthquakes,

causing casualties.
The problem is stated in the first sentence.
What are the two solutions to the problem?


Solution 1
Solution 2 is to make them more flexible, so they sway and slide above the shaking ground
Constructing buildings out of higher-grade materials

Making buildings more flexible

The rest of the paragraph elaborates on the second method of

making buildings earthquake-resistant. It also provides an
example of how buildings that were constructed to withstand
earthquakes saved lives in Chile, while buildings that were not
built to withstand earthquakes led to great loss of life in Haiti.
A Final Point
Keep in mind that a paragraph or passage may often be
made up of more than one pattern of organization.
A Final Point
For instance, consider the following passage:

The gestation period (length of pregnancy) of mammals depends on two
factors. The first is the mammals size. In general, smaller animals experience
shorter pregnancies. For example, a female rat gives birth only twenty-one days
after becoming pregnant; a hamsters gestation period is only sixteen days; a
horse, however, is pregnant for about forty-eight weeks. The second factor that
determines the gestation period is life spanlonger-lived animals have longer
pregnancies. The gestation period of a lion, which can live up to twenty-eight
years, is fifteen weeks. Dolphins, which have lived as long as forty years, are
pregnant for thirty-nine weeks. You can see the relationship between gestation
period and life span when you compare a possum to a cat. Although the possum
is slightly larger than a cat, it has a much shorter gestation period (thirteen days to
the cats sixty-two days). But cats can live up to twenty years, while possums are
elderly at 3.
The paragraph uses a cause-effect pattern: The length of

pregnancy of mammals is caused by two factors.
Effect
Cause 1
Cause 2
A Final Point

1
factors. The
first is the mammals size. In general, smaller animals experience
2
elderly at 3.

pregnancy of mammals is caused by two factors. It also
uses a list of items pattern (the two factors).
A Final Point

elderly at 3.

pregnancy of mammals is caused by two factors. It also
uses a list of items pattern (the two factors). There is also
a bit of comparison and contrast.
A Final Point

elderly at 3.
Continued on next slide
Continued

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TEN STEPS to

is presentation should be viewed in Slide Show view to display properl

2013 Townsend Press

In Chapter 4, you saw two common types of relationships:

Most of these relationships involve transitional words and

Illustration / Words That Show Illustration

The second item is easier to follow. The words for

Illustration / Words That Show Illustration

For instance and other words and phrases like it are

Illustration words indicate that an author will provide

Illustration / Words That Show Illustration

Here are some common words that show illustration:

Although they are childrens stories, famous fairy tales

Illustration / Words That Show Illustration

In these examples, notice how the illustration words

Although they are childrens stories, famous fairy tales

The Definition and Example Pattern

The definition and example pattern of organization

Illustration / The Definition and Example Pattern

See if you can arrange the following sentences in a

C. Another example is the situation in which a student tries to decide whether

Illustration / The Definition and Example Pattern

The sentences should read as follows:

Informal problems often call for a heuristica rule of thumb that

This paragraph begins with a definition of the word

Illustration / The Definition and Example Pattern

Informal problems often call for a heuristica rule of thumb that

Illustration / The Definition and Example Pattern

An important study hint:

Sound bites are short snippets of information

Illustration / The Definition and Example Pattern

If an author defines a term, you can assume that

Sound bites are short snippets of information

Illustration / The Definition and Example Pattern

The following paragraph defines a word and gives an example of it.

Illustration / The Definition and Example Pattern

What term is being defined?

Illustration / The Definition and Example Pattern

What term is being defined?

Illustration / The Definition and Example Pattern

Which sentence contains the definition?

Illustration / The Definition and Example Pattern

Which sentence contains the definition?

Illustration / The Definition and Example Pattern

In which sentence does the example begin?

Illustration / The Definition and Example Pattern

In which sentence does the example begin?

The example begins in sentence 2 and continues

Comparison and Contrast

2 Comparison and Contrast

Comparison and Contrast / Words That Show Comparison

In the second item, the transition word similarly

Comparison and Contrast / Words That Show Comparison

Similarly and words like it are comparison words.

Comparison words signal similarities. Authors use a

Comparison and Contrast / Words That Show Comparison

Here are some common words that show comparison:

Very young and very old people resemble one another in

Comparison and Contrast / Words That Show Comparison

Notice how these comparison words show that things are

Very young and very old people resemble one another in

Comparison and Contrast