UNIT-III

Telephony:
Multiplexing- WDM, TDM, FDM,
error detection and correction: Many to one, One to many.
Switching
Circuit switching, Packet and Message Switching.
Data link control protocols
Line discipline, flow control, error control, synchronous and
asynchronous protocols, character and bit oriented protocols,
Link access procedures.
Point to point controls
Transmission states, PPP layers, LCP, Authentication, NCP.
ISDN
Services, Historical outline, subscribers access, ISDN Layers and
broadcast ISDN.

Switching Techniques
In large networks there might be multiple paths linking sender
and receiver. Information may be switched as it travels through
various communication channels. There are three typical
switching techniques available for digital traffic.
Circuit Switching
Message Switching
Packet Switching

Figure 14-1

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Switched Network

The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Figure 14-4

Switch

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The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Figure 14-3

Circuit-Switched Network

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The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Circuit Switching
Circuit switching is a technique that directly connects
the sender and the receiver in an unbroken path.
Telephone switching equipment, for example, establishes
a path that connects the caller's telephone to the
receiver's telephone by making a physical connection.
With this type of switching technique, once a connection
is established, a dedicated path exists between both
ends until the connection is terminated.
Routing decisions must be made when the circuit is first
established, but there are no decisions made after that
time.

Circuit Switching
Circuit switching in a network operates almost the
same way as the telephone system works.
A complete end-to-end path must exist before
communication can take place.
The computer initiating the data transfer must ask for a
connection to the destination.
Once the connection has been initiated and completed
to the destination device, the destination device must
acknowledge that it is ready and willing to carry on a
transfer.

Circuit switching
Advantages:
The communication channel (once established) is dedicated.
Disadvantages:
Possible long wait to establish a connection, (10 seconds,
more on long- distance or international calls.) during which
no data can be transmitted.
More expensive than any other switching techniques,
because a dedicated path is required for each connection.
Inefficient use of the communication channel, because the
channel is not used when the connected systems are not
using it.

Figure 14-17

Message Switching

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The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Message Switching
With message switching there is no need to establish a
dedicated path between two stations.
When a station sends a message, the destination
address is appended to the message.
The message is then transmitted through the network,
in its entirety, from node to node.
Each node receives the entire message, stores it in its
entirety on disk, and then transmits the message to the
next node.
This type of network is called a store-and-forward
network.

Message Switching

A message-switching node is typically a general-purpose

computer. The device needs sufficient secondary-storage
capacity to store the incoming messages, which could be long.
A time delay is introduced using this type of scheme due to
store- and-forward time, plus the time required to find the next
node in the transmission path.

Message Switching
Advantages:
Channel efficiency can be greater compared to circuitswitched systems, because more devices are sharing the
channel.
Traffic congestion can be reduced, because messages may be
temporarily stored in route.
Message priorities can be established due to store-and-forward
technique.
Message broadcasting can be achieved with the use of
broadcast address appended in the message.

Message Switching

Disadvantages
Message switching is not compatible with interactive
applications.
Store-and-forward devices are expensive, because they
must have large disks to hold potentially long messages.

Packet Switching
Packet switching can be seen as a solution that tries to combine the
advantages of message and circuit switching and to minimize the
disadvantages of both.
There are two methods of packet switching: Datagram
and virtual circuit.

Packet Switching
In both packet switching methods, a message is broken into
small parts, called packets.
Each packet is tagged with appropriate source and destination
addresses.
Since packets have a strictly defined maximum length, they
can be stored in main memory instead of disk, therefore access
delay and cost are minimized.
Also the transmission speeds, between nodes, are optimized.
With current technology, packets are generally accepted onto
the network on a first-come, first-served basis. If the network
becomes overloaded, packets are delayed or discarded
(``dropped'').

Figure 14-13

WCB/McGraw-Hill

The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Figure 14-14

Datagram Approach

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The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Figure 14-15

Datagram Approach, Multiple Channels

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The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Packet Switching: Datagram

Datagram packet switching is similar to message switching in
that each packet is a self-contained unit with complete
addressing information attached.
This fact allows packets to take a variety of possible paths
through the network.
So the packets, each with the same destination address, do not
follow the same route, and they may arrive out of sequence at
the exit point node (or the destination).
Reordering is done at the destination point based on the
sequence number of the packets.
It is possible for a packet to be destroyed if one of the nodes on
its way is crashed momentarily. Thus all its queued packets may
be lost.

Packet Switching:Virtual
Circuit
In the virtual circuit approach, a preplanned route is established
before any data packets are sent.
A logical connection is established when
a sender send a "call request packet" to the receiver and
the receiver send back an acknowledge packet "call accepted
packet" to the sender if the receiver agrees on conversational
parameters.
The conversational parameters can be maximum packet sizes,
path to be taken, and other variables necessary to establish and
maintain the conversation.
Virtual circuits imply acknowledgements, flow control, and error
control, so virtual circuits are reliable.
That is, they have the capability to inform upper-protocol layers
if a transmission problem occurs.

Packet Switching:Virtual Circuit

In virtual circuit, the route between stations does not mean that
this is a dedicated path, as in circuit switching.
A packet is still buffered at each node and queued for output over
a line.
The difference between virtual circuit and datagram approaches:
With virtual circuit, the node does not need to make a routing
decision for each packet.
It is made only once for all packets using that virtual circuit.

Figure 14-16

Switched Virtual Circuit

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The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Figure 14-16-continued

Switched Virtual Circuit

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The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Figure 14-16-continued

Switched Virtual Circuit

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The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Packet Switching: Virtual Circuit

VC's offer guarantees that
the packets sent arrive in the order sent
with no duplicates or omissions
with no errors (with high probability)
regardless of how they are implemented internally.

Advantages of packet
switching
Advantages:
Packet switching is cost effective, because switching
devices do not need massive amount of secondary
storage.
Packet switching offers improved delay characteristics,
because there are no long messages in the queue
(maximum packet size is fixed).
Packet can be rerouted if there is any problem, such as,
busy or disabled links.
The advantage of packet switching is that many
network users can share the same channel at the same
time. Packet switching can maximize link efficiency by
making optimal use of link bandwidth.

Disadvantages of packet
switching
Disadvantages:
Protocols for packet switching are typically more complex.
It can add some initial costs in implementation.
If packet is lost, sender needs to retransmit the data.
Another disadvantage is that packet-switched systems still
cant deliver the same quality as dedicated circuits in
applications requiring very little delay - like voice
conversations or moving images.

Data link control protocols:

1. Line discipline
2.synchronous and asynchronous
protocols,
3.character and bit oriented protocols,
4. flow control,& error control
5.Link access procedures.

FRAMING
The data link layer needs to pack bits into frames, so
that each frame is distinguishable from another. Our
postal system practices a type of framing. The simple
act of inserting a letter into an envelope separates one
piece of information from another; the envelope serves
as the delimiter.

Data Link Protocols

Asynchronous Protocols
Synchronous Protocols
Character-Oriented Protocols
Bit-Oriented Protocols

Data Link Protocol Categories

A protocol in data communications is the set of rules
or specifications used to implement one or more layers
of the OSI model.

Data link protocol is a set of specifications

used to implement the data link layer

Data Link Protocol Categories

Asynchronous protocols
-

treat each character in a bit stream independently

use start and stop bits to frame the data units
inexpensive
used primarily in modems

Synchronous protocols
-

take the whole bit stream and chop it into characters

of equal size
- faster than asynchronous transmission

Synchronous Protocols

Character-oriented protocols
(or byte-oriented protocols)
- the frame or packet is interpreted as a series of characters
Bit-oriented protocols
- the frame or packet is interpreted as a series of bits

Figure 11.1 A frame in a character-oriented protocol

Figure 11.2 Byte stuffing and unstuffing

Note

Byte stuffing is the process of adding 1

extra byte whenever there is a flag or
escape character in the text.

Figure 11.3 A frame in a bit-oriented protocol

Note

Bit stuffing is the process of adding one

extra 0 whenever five consecutive 1s
follow a 0 in the data, so that the
receiver does not mistake
the pattern 0111110 for a flag.

Figure 11.4 Bit stuffing and unstuffing

Data Link Control

Line Discipline

Who Should send data

and When ?

Flow Control

How much data may

be sent?

Error Control

How can errors be

Detected and correct?

Data Link Control

Line Discipline

Flow Control

Error Control

ENQ / ACK
Poll / Select

Line Discipline: ENQ/ACK

Peer-to-peer communication

Line Discipline: ENQ/ACK

Line Discipline:Poll/Select

Primary-secondary communication
Multipoint Discipline

Select

Poll

Data Link Control

Line Discipline

Flow Control

a set of procedures used

to restrict the amount of
data that the sender can
send

Stop-and-wait

(one frame at a time)

Sliding window
Error Control

(several frames at a
time)

Flow Control
A set of procedures that tells the sender how
much data can be sent before waiting for
acknowledgment

Stop-and-wait

Sliding window

Sender sliding window

Receiver sliding window

Example of sliding window

Control variable

Example of sliding window

Data Link Control

Line Discipline

Flow Control

Error Control

Stop-and-wait ARQ

Sliding window ARQ

Go-back-n
Selective-reject

Error Control
Includes both error detection and correction
Allows receiver to inform sender of lost or
duplicate frames
Mostly based on Automatic Repeat Request
(ARQ)

Stop-and-wait ARQ: Normal Operation

Stop-and-wait ARQ: Damaged frame

Stop-and-wait ARQ: Lost data frame

Stop-and-wait ARQ: Lost ACK frame

Stop-and-wait ARQ: Delay ACK

Stop-and-wait ARQ: Piggybacking

Sliding Window
Go-back-n: Normal Operation

Sliding Window
Go-back-n: Damaged data frame

Sliding Window
Go-back-n: Lost Data Frame

Sliding Window
Go-back-n: Lost ACK

Sliding Window
Selective-reject: Damaged data frame

HDLC

High-level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a bit-oriented

protocol for communication over point-to-point and
multipoint links. It implements the ARQ mechanisms.
Two common transfer modes
1.Normal response mode.
2.Asynchronous Balanced Mode.

Normal response mode

Asynchronous balanced mode

Frame types
I-Frames (Information frames): Carries upper-layer
information and some control information. I-frame functions
include sequencing, flow control, and error detection and
recovery. I-frames carry send and receive sequence
numbers.
S-Frames (Supervisory Frames): Carries control information.
S-frame functions include requesting and suspending
transmissions, reporting on status, and acknowledging the
receipt of I-frames. S-frames carry only receive sequence
numbers.
U-Frames (Unnumbered Frames): carries control information.
U-frame functions include link setup and disconnection, as
well as error reporting. U-frames carry no sequence numbers

Figure 11.27 HDLC frames

FRAME FORMAT
Flag The value of the flag is always 0x7E. In order to ensure that the bit pattern of the frame
delimiter flag does not appear in the data field of the frame (and therefore cause frame
misalignment), a technique known as Bit stuffing is used by both the transmitter and the receiver.
Address field In LAPB, this field has no meaning.; it separates the link commands from the
responses and can have only two values: 01 AND 03.One side must be configured as a Layer 2
DTE and the other as a Layer 2 DCE
Control field it serves to identify the type of the frame. In addition, it includes sequence
numbers, control features and error tracking according to the frame type.
Modes of operation LAPB works in the Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM). This mode is
balanced (i.e., no master/slave relationship). Each station may initialize, supervise, recover from
errors, and send frames at any time. The DTE and DCE are treated as equals.
FCS The Frame Check Sequence enables a high level of physical error control by allowing the
integrity of the transmitted frame data to be checked.
Window size LAPB supports an extended window size

Data Link Control Protocols:

PPP

PPP
Point-to-Point Protocol
Byte-oriented protocol
Most common protocol for point-to-point
access
Dial-up access
ADSL
GPRS/EDGE/3G

PPP Frame Format

Escape byte: 01111101

Control field uses HDLC's U-frame format
No flow or error control

PPP Transition States

Multiplexing in PPP

PPP Stack
Link Control Protocol (LCP)
Authentication Protocol (AP)
Network Control Protocol (NCP)

LCP: Link Control Protocol

Responsible for establishing, maintaining,
configuring, and terminating links

PPP Authentication
Two protocols are supported:
Password Authentication Protocol (PAP)
Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol
(CHAP)

PAP

CHAP