TECHNOLOGY

SWI 3.2

Senior Welding Inspection

Residual Stress and Distortion
Course Reference WIS 10
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SWI 3.2

Stresses
Normal Stress
Stress arising from a force perpendicular to
cross sectional area

the

Compression

Tension
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Stresses

SWI 3.2

Shear Stress
Stress arising from forces which are parallel to, and lie
in the plane of the cross sectional area.

Shear Stress

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SWI 3.2

Stresses
Hoop Stress
Stress acting circumferentially around a pipe due to
internal pressure.

Hoop Stress
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Residual Stress

SWI 3.2

Metal contract during solidification and subsequent

cooling.
If this contraction is prevented or inhibited
residual stress will develop.
The tendency to develop residual stresses increases
when the heating and cooling is localised.
Welding is very localised heating and the presence of
liquid and solid metal in contact can be expected to
induce very high levels of residual stresses.

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SWI 3.2

Residual Stress

Residual stresses are very difficult to measure with

any real accuracy.
Residual stresses are self balancing internal forces
and not stresses induced whilst applying external
load
Stresses are more concentrated at the surface of the
component.
The removal of residual stresses is termed stress
relieving.

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SWI 3.2

Residual Stress

Residual stresses occur in welds in the following directions

Along the weld longitudinal residual stresses
Across the weld transverse residual stresses
Through the weld short transverse residual stresses

Longitudinal

Transverse
Short Transverse
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Distortion

SWI 3.2

Distortion is a very complex matter more than 20 factors

influence its magnitude and for this reason it is very difficult
to predict its exact amount of distortion that may occur

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Distortion

SWI 3.2

Factors which affect distortion are: material properties,

welding process, welding variables, the amount of restraint,
joint geometry and the welding procedure

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Distortion

SWI 3.2

Fit-up is very important to minimise distortion, fit-up must be

even and uniform to ensure constant shrinkage along the
joint

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Distortion

SWI 3.2

A mechanised welding process is preferable to a manual

process because its consistent operation allows for better
distortion control. The required volume of weld metal should
be deposited in the shortest time to minimise heat input

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Distortion

SWI 3.2

The shorter the welding time the less heat is transmitted in to

the material and less distortion will occur. Keep welding
times down by carefully selecting the welding process,
electrode type and size, welding current and travel speed

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Distortion

SWI 3.2

Longitudinal shrinkage/distortion

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Distortion

SWI 3.2

Transverse shrinkage/distortion

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Distortion

SWI 3.2

Angular distortion: weld metal contraction transverse

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Distortion

SWI 3.2

Angular distortion: weld metal contraction transverse

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Distortion

SWI 3.2

Longitudinal bowing: weld metal contraction longitudinal

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Distortion

SWI 3.2

Longitudinal shrinkage/distortion
Transverse shrinkage/distortion
Angular distortion: weld metal contraction transverse
Longitudinal bowing: weld metal contraction longitudinal

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Distortion

SWI 3.2

Longitudinal shrinkage/distortion
Transverse shrinkage/distortion
Angular distortion: weld metal contraction transverse
Longitudinal bowing: weld metal contraction longitudinal

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Distortion

SWI 3.2

Longitudinal shrinkage/distortion
Transverse shrinkage/distortion
Angular distortion: weld metal contraction transverse
Longitudinal bowing: weld metal contraction longitudinal

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Distortion

SWI 3.2

Longitudinal shrinkage/distortion
Transverse shrinkage/distortion
Angular distortion: weld metal contraction transverse
Longitudinal bowing: weld metal contraction longitudinal

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Distortion

Angular Distortion

Bowing Distortion
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SWI 3.2

Transverse Distortion

Longitudinal Distortion
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SWI 3.2

Distortion

Distortion will occur in all welded joints if the material

are free to move i.e. not restrained
Restrained materials result in low distortion but high
residual stress
More than one type of distortion may occur at one time
Highly restrained joints also have a higher crack
tendency to joints of a low restraint
The action of residual in welded joints is to cause
distortion
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Distortion

SWI 3.2

Factors which affect distortion

Material properties and condition
Heat input
The amount of restrain
The amount of weld metal deposited

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SWI 3.2

Distortion

The following movements can be detected in a simple butt

weld
1.Contraction in the weld metal along the welds length
2.Bowing due to the greater volume of weld metal at the top
of the weld
3.Peaking due to the V angle
4.Ripple (in sheet) away from the weld
5.Contraction in the weld metal transverse to the weld, angular
distortion
2
3

4
3

5
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Distortion

SWI 3.2

Control of distortion my be achieved in on of the

following way
The used of a different joint design

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Distortion

SWI 3.2

The volume of weld metal in a joint will affect the amount

of local expansion and contraction, hence the more weld
deposited the higher amount of distortion
Preparation angle 60o

Preparation angle 40o

Preparation angle 0o

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Distortion

SWI 3.2

Control of distortion my be achieved in on of the

following way
The used of a different joint design
Offsetting the joints to be welded so that the
metal distorts into the required position.

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Distortion

SWI 3.2

Offsetting:
The amount of offsetting required is generally a function of
trail and error

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Distortion

SWI 3.2

Control of distortion my be achieved in on of the

following way
The used of a different joint design
Offsetting the joints to be welded so that the
metal distorts into the required position.
The use of a balanced welding technique

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SWI 3.2

Distortion
Back-step welding technique
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

5.

3.

6.

Back-skip welding technique

1.

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SWI 3.2

Distortion

Control of distortion my be achieved in on of the

following way
The used of a different joint design
Presetting the joints to be welded so that the
metal distorts into the required position.
The use of a balanced welding technique
The use of clamps, jigs and fixtures.

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Distortion

SWI 3.2

Clamping and jigging:

The materials to be welded are prevented from moving by
the clamp or jig the main advantage of using a jig is that the
elements in a fabrication can be precisely located in the
position to be welded. Main disadvantage of jigging is high
restraint and high levels of residual stresses.

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TECHNOLOGY

SWI 3.2

Summary of Residual Stress & Distortion

1. Residual stresses are locked in elastic strain, which is

caused by local expansion and contraction in the weld
area.
2. Residual stresses should be removed from structures
after welding.
3. The amount of contraction is controlled by, the volume of
weld metal in the joint, the thickness, heat input, joint
design and the materials properties
4. Offsetting may be used to finalise the position of the joint.
5. If plates or pipes are prevented from moving by tacking,
clamping or jigging etc (restraint), then the amount of
residual stresses that remain will be higher.
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SWI 3.2

Summary of Residual Stress & Distortion

6. The movement caused by welding related stresses is

called distortion.
7. The directions of contractional stresses and distortion is
very complex, as is the amount and type of final distortion,
however we can say that there are three directions:
a. Longitudinal b. Transverse c.Short transverse
8. A high percentage of residual stresses can be removed by
heat treatments.
9. The peening of weld faces will only redistribute the
residual stress, and place the weld face in compression.

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SWI 3.2

TECHNOLOGY

Any Questions

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M.S.Rogers

SWI 3.2

TECHNOLOGY

Questions
QU 1. What causes residual stress in welds?

QU 2. State three directions which residual stresses form in a

weld.
QU 3. Give four methods of controlling distortion.

QU 4. Sketch two balanced welding techniques.

QU 5. State four factors which affect distortion.

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