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Evolution …. History….
DEFICIT / SURPLUS :
• Deficit : Fund by Borrowings / From Accumulation
• Surplus : Collect IOUs from Foreign Countries
B O P – Capital A/c
CONTAINS :
• FDI : Invest in a Company / Subsidiary in another Country
• Portfolio : Invest in Stocks / Bonds etc: No Transfer of
Control
• Other Investment : Deposits / Trade Credits, Currency, etc. to
utiilise advantage of Interest Rate Differential
B O P – Statistical Discrepancies
CONTAINS :
• Omitted / Mis-recorded Transactions
BOP–
Overall Balance / Official Settlement Balance
Australasia
Sydney, Tokyo, Hong Kong, Singapore, Bahrain
Europe
Zurich, Frankfurt, Paris, Brussels, Amsterdam London
North America
N Y, Montreal, Toronto, Chicago, San Francisco & L A
US - BOP – Year 2000 – $ - Billion
International FX Business
US - BOP – Year 2000 – $ - Billion
FX : Average Daily Turnover
Types of FX Markets – Two Tiers
Wholesale/Interbank :
• International Banks : Buy both for themselves
and for other retail clients
Retail / Client :
• Bank Customers : MNCs, Money managers,
Speculators
• Non – Bank Dealers : Investment Banks etc.
• Brokers : Match Buy / Sell requirements
• Central Banks : More to regulate Rates
Deals in FX Markets
• Dealing Rooms : Secure Environment
• Individual Traders for Particular Currency
• Generally : Most Trades : US $ denominated
• Quotes : Direct (American) / Indirect (European)
• Two Way Quotes : Sell ( Bid ) / Buy ( Ask/Offer )
• Spread : Difference between Sell / Buy
• Inter-Bank: Standard Size: US $ 10 M (ten dollars)
• Real-Time Quotes : Immediate Decision : Freeze
• $/£ Quote : $ 1.5267 - $ 1.5272
Big Figure / Small Figure : Quotes :Small Figure
• Screen Based Trade : Automatically Appear
• Cross Currency : Through $ Rate S(€/£) = S($/£)
S($/€)
FX Payment Gateways
US - BOP – Year 2000 – $ - Billion
S($/SF) .6653
F1($/SF) .6660
F3($/SF) .6670
F6($/SF) .6684
Swap Transaction
Simultaneous Sale ( Purchase ) of Spot against Forward :
• Account for about 50% - 60% in Interbank Trade
• Bulk of Trade :Swaps for Forwards
• FX Dealers Conversations / Quotes : ‘Forward Points’
Spot $/£ 1.5267–1.5272
One-Month 32–30
Three-Month 57–54
Six-Month 145–138
Spot $/£ : 1.5267–1.5272
Forward Point Outright Forward
Quotations Quotations
One-Month 32–30 1.5235–1.5242
Three-Month 57–54 1.5210–1.5218
Six-Month 145–138 1.5122–1.5134
Risk - Forex
US - BOP – Year 2000 – $ - Billion
• Bahamas
• Bahrain
• Bermuda
• Cayman Islands
DTAA : Double Taxation
Avoidance Agreement
•Avoidance of Double Taxation
• How ???
• DTAAs / Treaties
• Governments define Criteria for Taxing
• Definition of Income / Rates / Dispute Resolution
• Facilitate Exchange of Information
• Unilateral
• Bilateral
DTAA - Objectives : 1994 Treaty
1. GENERAL PRINCIPLE : Taxed in only one country
2. AVOIDANCE OF DOUBLE TAXATION
• Allocation of exclusive taxing rights
• Facilitates Consultation
3. PREVENTION OF FISCAL EVASION
TAXES ON INCOME, PROFITS OR GAINS AND CAPITAL GAINS
•Transfer pricing adjustments
•Exchange of information
4. ENCOURAGEMENT OF TRADE & INVESTMENT
•Non-discrimination
DTAA - Risks
• Potential Abuse
• Larger MNCs take advantage of loopholes
• Sophisticated Tax Planning : Countries lose
Tax Revenue
• May upset competition / equilibrium
• Transfer Pricing : Structured to benefit
• Limitation on Exchange of Information
• Tax Havens : Could become more popular
DTAA – Way forward …
• Depends upon co-operation
• Develop Working Groups
• Increased Exchange of Best Practices
• Continuous knowledge sharing
• Identify Differences / Loopholes : Improve
• Move towards Common Code like IFRS
• Unified approach : Willingness to succeed