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 Mhe steam age signaled the beginning of an industrial revolution.
 Mhe advantages of machines and gadgets in helping mass
production.
 Mhus a search for new sources of energy and novel gadgets
received great attention.
 By the end of the 18th century the research on electric charges
received a great boost with the invention of storage batteries.
 Mhe moving charges or currents was discovered also associated
with magnetic field like a lodestone.
 Mhis led to the invention of an electromagnet and later the force
exerted on a current carrying conductor placed in the magnetic
field was invented.

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 Mhis can be termed as the birth of a motor.
 Parallel research was contemporarily being done to invent a source
of energy to recharge the batteries in the form of a d.c. source of
constant amplitude (or d.c. generator).
 Mhe research on d.c. motors and d.c. generators proceeded on
independent paths.
 Mhe invention of a commutator paved the way for the birth of d.c.
generators and motors.

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 Mhe limitations of the d.c. system however became more and more
apparent as the power demand increased.
 Mhe invention of induction machines in the 1880s tilted the scale
in favor of a.c. systems mainly due to the advantage offered by
transformers
 Mhe d.c. system, however could not be obliterated due to the able
support of batteries. Further, d.c. motors have excellent control
characteristics.

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 §n understanding of DC generators is important
because it represents a logical introduction to the
behavior of DC motors.
 DC generators and motors are built the same way:
consequently, any DC generator can operate as a
motor and vice versa.

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 Because of their similar construction, the
fundamental properties of generators and motors
are identical.
 If the brushes in §C generator could be switched
from one slip ring to the other every time the
polarity was about to change, we would obtain a
constant polarity voltage across the load.

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 § commutator in its simplest form is composed of a
slip ring that is cut in half, with each segment
insulated from the other as well as from the shaft.
 Mhe commutator revolves with the coil and the
voltage between the segments is picked up by 2
stationary brushes.

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 By increasing the number of coils and segments,
we can obtain a DC voltage that is very smooth.
 Mhe coils are lodged in a slots of a laminated iron
cylinder, that both constitute the armature.

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 Mhe % ripple is the ratio of RMS value of the §C
component of voltage to the DC component.
(Modern DC generator produce voltage having a
ripple of less than 5%.

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 DC generator having 4 coils.
Schematic diagram

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§ctual physical
construction
 For reason of symmetry,
the coils are wound so
that 1 coil side is at the
bottom of a slot and the
other is at the top.
 Mhis armature winding is
called a lap winding.

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 Mhe voltage ea induced in coil
§ is exactly the same as the
voltage ec induced in coil C.
However , the coil § is moving
downward and coil C is
moving upward. Mhe polarities
of ea and ec, eb and ed are
opposite.
 Mhis means that ea + eb + ec +
ed = 0 at all times
 Mhe voltage between the
brushes is equal to (ea + ed) or
(eb + ec)

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 jhen the armature rotates, the voltage E induced in
each conductor depends upon the flux density
which it cuts.

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 Mhe conductors in slots 1 and 7 are exactly between the
poles, where the flux density is zero so the voltage induced
is zero. On the other hand, the conductors in slots 4 and 10
are directly under the centre of the poles, where the flux
density is greatest.

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 Mhe induced voltage remains essentially constant
as the armature rotates, because the number of
coils between the brushes is always the same,
irrespective of armature position.
 Note that the brushes short circuit the coils in
which the voltage is momentarily zero. Mhey are
said to be in the neutral position when they are
;positioned on the commutator so as to short
circuit those coils in which the induced voltage is
momentary zero.


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 By shifting the brushes the output voltage
decrease. §nd in this position, the brushes
continually short circuit generated coils and cause
sparking (poor commutation).

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 Neutral zones are those places on the surface of
the armature where the flux density is zero.
 jhen the generator operates at no load, the neutral
zones are located exactly between the poles.


 
 

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 penerated voltage is directly proportional to the
flux/pole and the speed of rotation.
 Only true if the brushes are on the neutral position.
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 Because the conductors lie in a magnetic field, they
are subjected to a force according to Lorentz's Law.
 Mhe individual forces F on the conductors produce
a torque that acts opposite to the direction in which
the generator is being drive.

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 Mo turn the generator, we
must exert a torque on the
shaft to overcome this
opposing electromagnetic
torque which resulting
mechanical power is
converted into electrical
power.

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 Mhe current flowing in the armature
coils also creates a magnetomotive
force that distorts and weakens the
flux coming from the poles.
 Mhe effect of a magnetic field
produced by the armature mmf is
called armature reaction drop.
 Mhe intensity of the armature flux
depends upon its mmf, which in turn
depends upon the current carried by
the armature.

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 Mhe flux in the neutral zone no
longer zero and will induces a
voltage in the coils are short
circuited by the brushes.
 Sparking may occur and its intensity
depend upon the armature flux and
the load current.

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 §rmature mmf also distorts
the flux produced by the
poles and cause the neutral
zones have shifted in the
direction of rotation.
 Mhis cause a reduction in the
induced voltage.

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 Due to the shift in the neutral zone, we could move
the brushes to reduce the sparking.
 For generators, the brushes are shifted in the
direction of rotation and brushes motors are shifted
against the direction of rotation.
 §fter the brushes are shifted the commutation
improves (less sparking).

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 Mhis procedure is only practical to resolve small DC
machines commutation problem (if the load current
fluctuates).
 Mo counter the effect of armature reaction in
medium and large power DC machines, a set of
commutating poles a placed between the main
poles.

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 Mhe number of turns on the
windings is designed so that
the poles develop a mmf
equal and opposite to the
mmf of the armature.
 By nullifying the armature
mmf the flux in the space
between the main poles is
always zero.

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 Separately Excited penerator.
§ pair of electromagnets (filed
poles) use to replace permanent
magnets.
DC field current is supplied by an
independent source (exciter)
§s we increase the load, the
terminal voltage diminished
progressively (10%) because of
the voltage drop across armature
resistance, Ro.

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 Shunt penerator (Self exited).
Shunt-field winding is connected
in parallel with the armature
terminal, so that the generator
can self excited.
Mhe progressive buildup
continues until Eo reaches a
maximum value determined by
the field resistance and the
degree of saturation.

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 Shunt penerator (Self exited).
je can determine the no-load value of
Eo if we know the saturation curve of
the generator and the total resistance
Rt of the shunt field circuit.
Critical resistance will be reached
where the slope of resistance line is
equal to that of the saturation curve in
its unsaturated region.

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 Shunt penerator (Self exited).
It is easy to control the induced voltage of a
shunt excited generator by vary the exciting
current.
Mhe terminal voltage of a shunt generator
falls off more sharply (15%) with increasing
load than a separately excited generator
because its exciting current falls as the
terminal voltage drops.

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 Compound penerator.
Mhis generator was developed to
prevent the terminal voltage of a DC
generator from decreasing with
increasing load.
It is similar to a shunt generator,
except that it has additional field coils
connected in series with the armature.

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 Compound penerator.
jhen no load, the current in the series
coils is zero and shunt coils carry exciting
current which produces the field flux (just
like standard self excited shunt generator)
jhen loaded, load current flows through
the series field coils and a mmf developed
by these coils acts in the same direction
as the shunt field mmf. So the field flux
under load rises above its original no load
value which raises the value of Eo.

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 Differential Compound penerator.
Mhe mmf of the series field acts opposite to the shunt
field. So the terminal voltage falls drastically with
increasing load.
Used in DC arc welders, because they tended to limit
the short circuit current and to stabilize the arc during
the welding process.

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 Mo appreciate the working and the
characteristics of these machines, it is
necessary to know about the different parts of
the machine - both electrical and non-electrical.

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 Mhe major parts can be
identified as,
Body
Poles
§rmature
Commutator and brush
gear
Commutating poles
Compensating winding
Other mechanical parts

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 Mhe body constitutes the outer shell within which all
the other parts are housed.
 Mhis will be closed at both the ends by two end covers
which also support the bearings required to facilitate
the rotation of the rotor and the shaft.
 Even though for the generation of an emf in a
conductor a relative movement between the field and
the conductor would be enough, due to practical
considerations of commutation, a rotating conductor
configuration is selected for DC. machines. Hence the
shell or frame supports the poles and yoke of the
magnetic system.

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 Solid poles of fabricated steel with separate/integral
pole shoes are fastened to the frame by means of
bolts.
 Pole shoes are generally laminated. Sometimes
pole body and pole shoe are formed from the same
laminations.
 Riveted through bolts hold the assembly together.
Mhe pole shoes are shaped so as to have a slightly
increased air gap at the tips.

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 Mhese are small additional poles located in between
the main poles.
 Mhese are also fastened to the yoke by bolts.
 Mhese are also called as commutating poles or
compoles.

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 Mhe armature is where the moving conductors are
located.
 Mhe armature is constructed by stacking laminated
sheets of silicon steel. Mhickness of these
lamination is kept low to reduce eddy current
losses.
 Mhe core is divided into packets to facilitate
ventilation.
 §rmature construction process must ensure
provision of sufficient axial and radial ducts to
facilitate easy removal of heat from the armature
winding.
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 §s against permanent magnet excited machines the field winding
takes the form of a concentric coil wound around the main poles.
 Mhese carry the excitation current and produce the main field in
the machine.
 Mhe resistance of such winding would be an order of magnitude
larger than the armature winding resistance.
 Mhe total mmf required is divided equally between north and south
poles as the poles are produced in pairs. Mhe mmf required to be
shared between shunt and series windings are apportioned as per
the design requirements.

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 Mhe armature windings are in general pre-formed, taped and
lowered into the open slots on the armature.
 In the case of small machines, they can be hand wound. Mhe coils
are prevented from flying out due to the centrifugal forces by
means of bands of steel wire on the surface of the rotor in small
groves cut into it.
 In the case of large machines slot wedges are additionally used to
restrain the coils from flying away.
 Mhe end portion of the windings are taped at the free end and
bound to the winding carrier ring of the armature at the
commutator end.
 Mhe armature must be dynamically balanced to reduce the
centrifugal forces at the operating speeds.

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 One may find a bar winding housed in the slots
on the pole shoes.
 Mhis is mostly found in d.c. machines of very
large rating.
 In smaller machines, they may be absent.

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 It consists of copper segments tightly fastened
together with mica/micanite insulating separators on
an insulated base.
 Mhe whole commutator forms a rigid and solid
assembly of insulated copper strips and can rotate at
high speeds.
 Mhe surface of the commutator is machined and
surface is made concentric with the shaft and the
current collecting brushes rest on the same.

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 Brushes rest on the surface of the commutator.
 Normally electro-graphite is used as brush material. Mhe actual
composition of the brush depends on the peripheral speed of
the commutator and the working voltage. Mhe hardness of the
graphite brush is selected to be lower than that of the
commutator.
 Mhe brush holders provide slots for the brushes to be placed.
Mhe connection from the brush is taken out by means of flexible
pigtail.
 Mhe brushes are kept pressed on the commutator with the help
of springs. Mhis is to ensure proper contact between the
brushes and the commutator even under high speeds of
operation.
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 6umping of brushes must be avoided to ensure arc
free current collection and to keep the brush contact
drop low.
 Radial positioning of the brushes helps in providing
similar current collection conditions for both direction
of rotation.
 For unidirectional drives trailing brush arrangement
or reaction arrangement may be used.
 Reaction arrangement is preferred as it results in zero
side thrust on brush box and the brush can slide
down or up freely.
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 End covers, fan and shaft bearings form other
important mechanical parts.
 End covers are completely solid or have opening
for ventilation. Mhey support the bearings which are
on the shaft.
 Fans can be external or internal. In most machines
the fan is on the non-commutator end sucking the
air from the commutator end and throwing the same
out.

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 Small machines employ ball bearings at both ends.
 For larger machines roller bearings are used
especially at the driving end.
 Mhe bearings must be kept in closed housing with
suitable lubricant keeping dust and other foreign
materials away.
 Care must be taken to see that there are no bearing
currents or axial forces on the shaft both of which
destroy the bearings.

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 Mo increase the output voltage, a DC generator
must be spun faster, but beyond a certain speed
this is impractical for very large power
transmission generators.

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 Consequently a four-pole generator could output twice the
voltage of a two-pole generator, a six-pole generator could
output three times the voltage of a two-pole. Mhis allows output
voltage to increase without also increasing the rotational rate.
 In a multipole generator, the armature and field magnets are
surrounded by a circular frame or "ring yoke" to which the field
magnets are attached. Mhis has the advantages of strength,
simplicity, symmetrical appearance, and minimum magnetic
leakage, since the pole pieces have the least possible surface
and the path of the magnetic flux is shorter than in a two-pole
design.

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 Coil § and C are
momentarily in neutral
zone, B is cutting the
flux coming from the
center of the poles.

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 Coil width (coil pitch) is
the coil sides cut the flux
coming from the
adjacent N & S poles.
Coil § sides in slots 1
and 7 and they are in the
neutral zone. Coil B
sides in slot

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 Mhe voltage generated
between brushes x and y is
equal to the sum of the
voltages generated by the
coils connected to
commutator segments.
 Mhe +ve brush sets are
connected together to form
the +ve terminal and so with
-ve brush sets.

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 Morque is produced when a force exerts a
twisting action on a body, tending to make it
rotate.
 Morque is equal to the product of the force times
the perpendicular distance between the axis of
rotation and the point of application of the force.

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 Mhe torque exerted on the pulley by
the tangential force is given by,

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 Mhe mechanical power output of a machine depends
upon its rotational speed and the torque it develops.
Mhe power is given by,

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je can measure the power output of
a
motor by means of a prony brake.
Mhe torque is, M

Mhe power is, P

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