Research Methods

Author/Instructor: Pudji Permadi

Semester I 2015/2016
Study Program of Petroleum Engineering

Topics to be discussed :
-

Introduction
Science, scientific
Research + Method
Meanings for research
Fundamentals, theory, hypotesis
Assignment I/Presentation/Mid Semester Test
Data, types of data
Methods of data processing, interpretation, and
analysis
- Scienific Comunications and format
- Assignment II/Presentation/Final Exam

Introduction

The legal loophole

The map of science and terrains
Marconis loophole (early 1900)
Radioactive logging (mid of 1900)
Impossible problems
- impossibility due to self-contradictory
- impossibility due to lack of knowledge
- self-contradictory
- new knowledge
- unresolved (subject to further and
more intensive investigaton)

Introduction
The legal loophole
(a term used in the science of LAW)
an obscure point that can benefits the
opponent

Introduction
The map of science
The real physical world (the
terrains)
Map of
unlimited
area of
imagination

Area of the
absolute truth

Introduction
The map of science
The real physical world (the
terrains)
points of
experiments
Map of
unlimited
area of
imagination

Introduction
The map of science
The real physical world (the
terrains)
Maps of
science
Map of
unlimited
area of
imagination

Approaching
the truth

Concepts
of science
Drawn with
logic or math

Describing
Nature

The basis
for :
Critical
thinking
critical
examination
for scientific
innovations
avoiding
errors

Maps of
science

There are loopholes !

Introduction
Marconis loophole (early 1900)
Radioactive logging (mid of 1900)
Velocity of light, theory of big bang

Rational approaches to
impossible problems
impossibility due to self-contradictory
impossibility due to lack of present knowledge
- self-contradictory
- new knowledge
- unresolved (subject to further and more
intensive investigaton)

Science :
The results of doing research on
(natural) phenomena based on
evaluating the factual data and the
related information by using rationale
and in well organized and systematic
ways.

Scientific :
characteristic of things resulted from
application of logic based on well
established scientific knowledges.
method of solving problem(s) by using logic
or describing the logic systematically based
on well established scientific knowledges.

Research
Research is a process of scientific activities
started from understanding the problem(s)
until finding the solution(s).
search for problem
characterize the problem
establish systematic method
collecting data and information
find explanation to solve the problem.
Research is basically directed to solve scientific problems in
order to giving contribution to the treasure of sciences.

Scientific research is an activity performed

to gain knowledge about (natural)
phenomena by using systematic and well
organized means, evaluating data/facts,
and by employing/applying logic (science
of correct reasoning, i.e. well established
theories, laws, rules, concepts, etc.).

Research itself must have method or

methodology that is based on logics,
systematics,
and
existing
factual
data/information.

Method :
well organized way of thinking, philosophy,
and systematic means employed to solve
scientific problems.

Motivation to do research
The prime motivation of a scientific
activity is to come up with significant
contribution to science development.

Other scientific activities :

Investigation
Exploration
Study
Review.

Scientific investigation = scientific research

when the investigation activity results in
significant contribution to the fields of
science.

Scientific exploration = scientific activity that

uses scientific method to get to know about
natural phenomena that are previously not
known without being directed to solving the
existing problems but merely to add up or
elevate the insight of science.
Even though, it may be possible that a such
activity would result in description or explanation
about the phenomena and even come up with a
new concept or even a new theory.

Any scientific activity should be performed by

using method that requires the followings:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

The use of several powers of the mind

Systematic
Impersonal (objective)
Non-emotion (do not use your feelings)
Imprejudiced (do not conclude prior to proofing)

In the world of sciences, 2 methods that are

differentiated from the way of reasoning or
describing the arguments (although the basic
reasoning is the same:what, why, and how) :
1. scientific methods
(known as emphiricism school of thought)
2. scholastic methods
(known as rationalism school of thought)

2nd Week Class

Review of 1st Week Class

Loopholes
Science vs. knowledge
Types of scientific/scholastic activities
Scientific methods
Principal characters to conduct scientific
activities
Two schools of thought or reasoning in
conducting the activities

 Loophole = condition or state from which

you can take benefit.
Science = result(s) of evaluating natural
phenomena that have been obtained
based on evidences or facts by using ratio
and well organized and systematic
manners.
Knowledge = all that have been perceived
or grasp by mind.
Types of scientific/scolastic activities:
research, investigation, exploration, study,
review.

 Scientific method = way or manner of

thinking (by empowering the ratio, well
organized, and systematic) established or
set to conduct activity in the effort to solve
problem.
Principal characters in conducting the
activities: the use of powers of mind,
systematic, impersonal, non-emotion,
imprejudiced.
2 schools of thought or reasoning:
empiricism and rationalism.

2nd week topics:

methods, imperfectness of scientific
knowledge, research aspects, types
of researches

Scientific methods
So called inductive method (Baconian), a
method employing real facts based on
observation, recorded measurements, analyzed,
and interpreted so that generalization may be
formulated and the causes (hidden) can be
revealed.
The act of or practice of using such reasoning is
called as empiricism.
The users of this method are called as
scientists.
(as a rule: do not discover in order to know, but rather to
know in order to discover)

Home assignment #1
Give an example of inductive method
employed in petroleum engineering
research areas.

Scholastic method
It is called as deductive method, a method used in
research activities by interpretating and describing
the existing factual knowledge. (It does not mean
no discovery).
The act of such reasoning is called as rationalism (=
principle or practice of accepting reason as the only authority in
determining ones opinions).

Rationalism does not have to be based on

measured data or direct measurements. But, it is a
must in experimental sciences.
The users of this method are called as scholars.

Home assignment #2
Give an example of deductive method
employed in petroleum engineering
research areas.

Falsification method (Popperian) is a

method or a way of thinking stating that
any scientific research can not reach the
absolute truth.
Carr (1992) : Science is still an imprecise field,
full of ambiguities and half truth, because of the
imperfect state of knowledge; if there were not
then there will be nothing left to research .

Causes of imperfectness :
- Limitation of mankind capability in
conducting the measurements
- inability of mankind in describing the full
detail of the systems or the nature
- inability of mankind in mimicking perfectly the
phenomena/characteristics/behavior of the nature.

The utimate goals of scientific research

as far as possible are not only to reach
findings that can describe the natural
pheomena within the certain systems
(principles,
laws,
rules
all
related
systematically) but also to predict
accurately.
(In experimental science, accurate prediction may be
easily obtained because the systems made and its
parameters can be under control. This is to become the
platform of the development of technology)

The important aspects to be considered

in scientific research activities :
-

Repeatibility
Measuration
Economy
Consistency
Heuristic.

Various terms of Research

- Pure research (the ultimate goals are
directed to significantly contributing to science
development)

- Basic research (directed to developing

fundamentals)

- Applied research (any research that will

give direct applications with less costs)

- Development (directed to the needs of

industry for better products or uses)

Home assignment #3
Give an example of each pure research,
basic research, applied research, and
development research.

3rd Week Class

The essence of scientific

activities

Scientific Activities
All the activities that use the ratio or power
of mind, well established theory (laws, rules,
principles), data (measurable and
repeatable), well organized and systematic,
and adopt impersonal, non-emotional,
imprejudiced characters in solving
problems.
Other aspects to consider: consistency,
economy, and heuristic.

Catagory
Scientific research (pure, basic, applied,
development)
Scientific investigation
GOAL ?
Scientific exploration
Scientific study
Scientific review, overview

The goal is to search fo the scientific truth

(not the absolute truth), a statement that
can be explained and accepted on the basis
of the existing, well established theories,
laws, rules, or the related scientific
concepts.
Problem
= involving object researched,
including the problem in itself.

 The essence of scientific activities.

The rational or the basic philosophy of
doing scientific activities is to ask WHAT
and WHY and answer HOW.
Subject
Situation of
the Subject

How to describe/explain the

Situation of the Subject. Need to
understand the system or the object

Example : For a condensate-gas reservoir, the specific

problem is a low condensate recovery.
Why ?

What ?

Subject of the research : condensate recovery

Object of the research : the gas and the
medium where the gas
To answer How, we must look at
resides.
the thing/system
The problems
Part of the object

: general or specific ?
Are there factors affecting the
condesate recovery?
Need to limit the problems?

Catagory of problems:
Strongly relate to fundamentals

1. Cause-Effect problems (ex.: water condensation

around wellbore)

General trend in characteristics

2. Empirical Relationship problems (ex.: k--Sw)

3. Space-Time Situation problems
(ex.: anomalous
Look like deviation from the rule
problems; puzzling problems)

Relate to building natural object

4. Establishing a system problem (ex.: modeling

zonal/compartmental reservoir; fractured reservoir;
stratigraphy; etc)

Methods of Approach to
Solutions

Scientific Approaches
1. Imitative approach.
This approach assumes that problems
may be solved by obeying/adopting the
strongly related laws, theory, rules, or the
existing
correlation
without
thinking/considering
possible
hiding
causes.
Such approach may be catagorized as
deductive method.
Mathematical approach for example.

2. Creative approach.
This approach tends to follow falsification
paradigm, searching for new truth without
being influenced much by related, specific
established theory, law, or concept.
Such approach may be catagorized as
inductive method or even falsification
method.
Example : Fractal dimension

Creative approach may be divided into :

- reductionist, partial solution approach
- integrative/holistic approach

Logics in Solving

Problems

1. Monologic.
The way of thinking follows a systematic
algorithm directing to a simple logic
pattern, obeying the existing theory,
laws, concepts.
This is in accord with imitative approach.

Logics in Solving Problems (contd)

2. Multilogic.
This way of thinking is quite flexible,
considering that any problem may be
solved from different views, depending on
how we look at the problem.
The solution could be the same, similar,
or even different (has no truly correct
answer).

Logics in Solving Problems (contd)

3. Other way of thinking to solve :
- vertical thinking (go deep into the
problem)
- lateral thinking (go beyond the
problem, look a broader view and find
new ideas or theories)

Metodology in solving problems

I. Experimental methods

1. Laboratory experiments (representative

model, physical, numerical, parameters may
be controlled)

2. Field experiments
(only partial parameters controlled)
Both are based on the existing scientific rules, applying
inductive or deductive method.

Metodology in solving problems (contd)

II. Observational method
This method emphasizes on observation (taking
pictures of different scales) or taking data of
separate processes but assumed as the same
system.
Such method may be called as inductive
descriptive.
If comparison is considered in solving the problem
according to similarity, the method is termed
inductive comparative)

Fundamentals, Theory, etc.

Topics discussed :

Fundamentals: principles, theory, laws

Principles without proving
Principles that can be proved
Development of theory
Hierarchy of theory

Introduction
Science is a knowledge system created in the
basis of observations or evidences or events
that can be systematically described and
accepted based on the existing, well established
laws of the nature.
The laws of the nature become fundamentals
from which principles, laws, and rules are made
to explain/describe the natural phenomena
postdicted (to reconstruct using the power of the
mind) and or predicted.

Fundamental, theory, law, rule

Fundamentals in scientific knowledges are the
laws of the nature that had been widely and
comprehensively verified and then became
principles, laws, and rules that all have been
comunicated or translated into various forms (i.e.
mathematical statements or other forms of
statements).
One fundamental with another one may be
combined to explain or describe an event in a
more complex system.
Assumptions or conditions involved are part of the
fundamental.

Theory
Theory is a statement describing and
explaining an event or a phenomenon
based on its principles involved and
verification to some degree.
The difference between theory and
fundamental is that theory may be
inferential or even could be wrong
someday, but fundamental must be true
and no problematic any more.

Theory may become a fundamental when the

theory has been widely and comprehensively
verified, supported by the related well
established scientific knowledges.
A theory may be derived from a basic theory and
applied to a system in order to explain an event
or a natural phenomenon.

 Theory is a scientific explanation for a phenomenon

and must refer to the related prevailing theory.
Example: Knudsen/Klinkenberg effect in the flow of gas
through a porous medium.

A theory may explain or support another theory and

both may be related in describing a natural
phenomenon with relatively complex problem.
Example: Theory of spontaneus broken asymmetry in
big bang theory (cosmology theory).

Scientific Explanation :
relevant
logic referring to the widely accepted theory
proved or highly possible to be proved or
confirmed
predictive or contains some truth
fewer assumption as possible

Development of theory
Theory is the results of observation and has
been repeatedly tested.
Any theory is developed through several
stages (Chamberlain, 1904):
Premature explanation
tentative theory
Accepted/adopted theory
ruling theory

 A ruling theory becomes a basic

principle, a rule, or a law
A ruling theory may be in the form of
equation/correlation so that it has a
strong capability of prediction.
Another theory may be developed
based on the ruling theory through
hypothesis.

Hierarchy of theory
1. Basic theory (theories in physics,
chemistry)
2. Limited theory (still based on basic theory)
3. Unified theory.

How about concept?

Concept is, in a general, a way of thinking or a
statement made as a guide, or rule, or procedure
to be used in solving a problem.
Concept, in scientific perspective, is a scientific
statement that has not been
widely/comprehensively verified, but based on the
existing accepted theory to describe or explain a
certain phenomena (postdicted or predicted).

Principles

Older

Stenos Law

Principles without proving

(contd)

Asumptions: - composition of each phase is uniform

- no mass transfers between phases at
equilibrium condition

Topics discussed today :

Paradigms in science
Methods of proving
The truth in science
Hypothesis
Thesis
Synthesis
Analysis

Paradigms in science
Logic and understanding in all what have
been done within the scientific community,
implemented by referring to, applying the
well established fundamentals, procedures,
examples, and probably unwritten formal
behaviors.
Creativity to modify, change, improve in the
effort to come up with new ideas that were
not previously considered.

Paradigms in science (contd)

The way of thinking in that proving or
verifying theory takes time and effort by
others to be accepted and established.

Methods of proving
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Testing
Belief in the data recorded
Belief in witness
Belief in verification
Re-testing

Remeber the
important
aspects to
consider in
conducting
scientific
activities?

The truth in science

There is no absolute truth but in the level of
probability (If there were no errors in the
description of nature, then no remaining left to
research or investigate).

Due to
imperfectness
of mankind.

The truth in science is temporary.

A theory may be said valid (instead of correct)
when:
1) theory is not in contradiction with the facts,
evidences, or observation
2) theory can predict or postdict precisely

Hypothesis, Thesis, Synthesis,

Analysis

Hypothesis
Websters New World dictionary:

hypothesis is an unproved theory or

preposition tentatively accepted to explain
certain facts or to provide a basis for
further investigation, argument, etc.

Requirements for a hypothesis

1. To some extent there is evidence for it
2. Sensible/sound judgement
3. Capable of being tested

Composing a hypothesis
Strong scientific reasoning should be
focused on the explanation of the solution
to the problem.
Types of data needed to analyze in order
to prove the hypothesis (if necessary
generate or provide other types of data that
could refuse the hypothesis so that it will be
recognized/known the limitation of the hypthesis )

Catagory of hypothesis
1. Ruling theory hypothesis
2. Working hypothesis

1. Ruling theory hypothesis

This hypothesis is based on deductive
reasoning, i.e. the fundamentals are used
as the basis in proposing the tentative
answer to the problem.

2. Working hypothesis
This hypothesis is the one or concept
describing scientific reasoning based on
scientific rules in solving the problem.
To prove the solution, what types of data
needed. If necessary, what types of other
data needed as well to refuse the solution.

Types of Hypothesis :
1. Null hypothesis
2. Single working hypothesis
3. Multiple working hypothesis
4. Developing hypothesis

1. Null hypothesis
This type of hypothesis is the one proposed
stating that no relationship would exist
between a phenomenon or factor and
another one within the object investigated.
We might have an alternative hypothesis to
anticipate if the null one would not work.

2. Single working hypothesis

This is the one that contains a strong scientific

reasoning to prove the hypothesis. To propose
such a hypothesis, the related knowledge and
the indepth understanding about the problem
both are certainly required.
Usually, the fields that require deductive reasoning would
not be difficult in composing this type of hypothesis.

3. Multiple working hypothesis

This is the one that may consist of more
than one hypothesis proposed. The
solutions are related each other.
Such hypothesis is usually composed when
accumulative inductive reasoning is
needed to solve a relatively complex
object.

4. Developing hypothesis
This type of hypothesis is composed with
expectation that the solution would change
(not totally) or improve as more and
complete data are available/obtained.

Assumptions in hypothesis
Assumptions are usually considered and
proposed in composing a hypothesis
when the problem requires limitation or the
theory or fundamentals adopted would not
be completely supported by the existing
factors, data, or conditions.

Thesis
Websters New World dictionary:
Thesis is a proposition maintained or

defended in an argument, formerly one

publicly disputed, by a candidate for a
degree in medieval university.

In general:
Thesis may be defined as the results of
proving hypothesis based on data
obtained by obeying scientific rules,
testing or verification, analysis with logic
and systematic explanation and in
accordance with the hypothesis proposed,
and end up with serious conclusions that
meet the objective.

Synthesis
Synthesis is the results of combination or
integration of several deductive reasoning,
stating that the all phenomena found and
explained can be tied each other to come
up with a complete explanation as a
whole.

Analysis
Different from synthesis, analysis is a
proces of inductive reasoning to describe
and explain a (natural) phenomena as a
result of several involved factors impacting
or affecting the object under investigation.

Mid Test
Semester I 2014/2015

Solution to
Mid Semester Exam
October 28, 2014
1.

2.
3.

4.

The paper may be catagorized as the results of either scientific

investigation or scientific research, depending upon our best
knowledge in this research area.
-The paper might be properly said as the results of a scientific
investigation since the extensiveness of the experiments done was
limited and so why the authors suggested for more work to do in
order to obtain both better quantitative interpretation and conclusons.
The authors conducted their work based on inductive reasoning. The
paper was therefore a scientific one. [In this work, the experiments
were done to reveal complex natural phenomena, to measure quartz
surface area, ionic concentration, electrostatic, and so on. All of
these were to explain the phenomena and discover some
generalization of the behavior of sodium ion adsorption on quartz]

Solution to
Mid Semester Exam
October 28, 2014
(contd)

5.

Repeatability: The experimentation done was standard one. In

addition, a few experiments were made to get a
preliminary idea on the effect of anions on Sodium
ion adsorption.
Measuration: The equipments, procedures, and methods used
were standard ones, ensuring the use of common
units/scales in measurements.
Consistency: The varied concentration of chemicals and
conditions resulted in systematic trends/behaviors,
as well as some agreements with previous results.
Heuristic
: The authors provided suggestions for further works,
particularly on evaluating the effect of anions more
than qualitatively.

Solution to
Mid Semester Exam
October 28, 2014
(contd)

6.

Hypothesis : Ionic adsorption on quartz is important in the theory

of flotation. Sodium ion adsorption on quartz is
resulted from electron activity due to opposite
charges. 1) Since negative charge of quartz surface
is quite large and depends on both pH of the
solution, sodium ion adsorption is influenced by
sodium ionic concentration and pH as well, 2) Since
each ionic element has its own electronic affinity,
then the adsorption is affected by the affinity of
another ion existing in the solution; the stronger the
affinity of another ion, the lesser the sodium ion
adsorption.

Solution to
Mid Semester Exam
October 28, 2014
(contd)

7.

Synthesis and analysis are only available in this paper.

Synthesis : Based on the evaluation made for the adsorption of
each alkali metal used for each situation (i.e. Na+
concentration, the presence of other cations, and the
presence of anions), the authors were able to
generalize the Sodium ion adsorption behavior on
quartz.
Analysis : The analysis made explains the inter-relationship
between both Sodium ion concentration and pH and
the Sodium ion adsorption on quartz (see Figs. 1 and
2). Also, the effect of other cations concentration and
type of anion in the solution on Sodium ion adsorption
demonstrated in tabular forms as shown in Tables III
and IV, respectively.

Solution to
Mid Semester Exam
October 28, 2014
(contd)

8.

The conclusions drawn had achieved the objectives: 1) Sodium ion

adsorption on quartz increases with Sodium ion concentration in
the solution, 2) Sodium ion adsorption is affected by the presence
of other cations and the strength of a cation in displacing Sodium
ion adsorbed follows the Lyotropic Series, and 3) Sodium ion
adsorption is influenced by type of anion present in the solution
found in a decreasing order of F- > SO4= > NO3= > Cl-.

DATA

The essence
Contribution to the development of scientific
knowledges has been all based on data.
Data are facts (evidences, notes, results of
observation, information) to be processed and
analyzed such that explanation for the natural
phenomena can be described and the related
problem can be solved and clearly concluded.

The essence (contd)

Data shall be recorded and must indicate the
facts or truths such that the results of data
processing and the analysis are in accord with or
obey well established theories, and the
explanation given in solving the problem fulfills
the logics or resonings of the related scientific
knowledge.

Consideration of data design

(based on designing the data you need that refer to the
hypothesis)

Data Type

Data characteristics (deals with how to obtain

the data: observation, measurement, simulation, or
data base)

Data source (deals with where the data will be

obtained/collected: lab, field, or literature)

Data collection (deals with method to

obtain/collect data: identification, sampling technique
and procedure, tools needed, etc.)

Data Requirements
Data needed, designed, and obtained should
meet and be used to prove the hypothesis
proposed and the objective of your research.
Items to be considered:
presicion (tools) and accuracy (errors, user)
quantity (distribution, range, repetition)
procedure in obtaining data
conditions (constraints/limitation?)
spec of equipments/tools needed
calibration, standard speciment/subtance

Forms of Data
Quantitative data (those measured, referring to a
standard unit or scale).

Qualitative data (those identified, recorded and

stated in verbal or narrative forms).

Note: Data obtained or data available may deviate from

what we expect. Such data might be due to mistakes or
errors, but may be the data are not due to mistakes or
errors.

Catagory of Data
A. Primary data (directly obtained by yourself; new data just
analyzed and interpreted but not used yet; old data with new
analysis/interpretation by yourself)

B. Secondary data (other than primary data but may be used

as main/primary data or supporting data)

C. Hypothetical data (generated without measurements and

treated as the representative data for the main data)

D. Supporting data (used to support or strengthen the

analysis/discussion/explanation and the conclusion)

E. Assumed data (usually representative data value assigned

and used due to lack of primary or secondary data available )

Processing and Analyzing Data

Design or methodology used for data processing
and analysis depends upon the need.
Data processing: conversion, normalization,
correction, formating
Methods: manual or computerized
Data analysis: sorting, grouping, etc., forming
correlation between dependent variable and
independent variables

Analysis
Analysis deals with the use of data, that have been
processed and analyzed, in the effort to clearly
explain and solve the problem in the course of
proving the hypothesis and end up with conclusion(s)
that meets or meet the objective(s).
Note: Analysis is systematic, descriptive statement(s) of
the results of data processing and analysis based on the
process of intelectual reasoning that gives explanation
and understanding about a problem, offers/provides the
solution to the problem, and the clarity toward the
conclusion(s).

Scientific Communication

Definition
Scientific communication is a formal or an
informal piece of work that delivers results
of scientific activity for the purposes of
sharing and defending the finding of the
truth.

Characteristics
As long as we go along a way of finding the
scientific truths, any scientific activity and the
results have no responsibilty for laws but do
have moral and ethical responsibilities.
The related societies have the right and
responsibility for searching or directing toward
the scientific truth (in forms of discussion/critics)
if any error or mistake in the
data/analysis/interpretation is found.

The Purpose
To show our moral/ethical responsibility for what
we have done with the scientific work.
To test the truth found through interactive or noninteractive communication.
To share the developed knowledged/scince in the
effort to give opportunity for further action and at
the same time may obtain input/suggestion.
To claim the finding
To be recognized/acknowledged

Channels for communication

Verbal: direct communication (formal or
informal presentation)

Written: thesis/dissertation, journal/proceedings

paper, extended abstract, poster
session of conference/seminar, printed
report, electronic forms (website,
slides, etc.)

Forums of communication
Meetings: conference, symposium,
convention, seminar

Internal discussion
Limited seminar

Types of society to communicate

Academic society
Society of professional association
Internal institution/company
Public society

Forms of documentation
Permanent archives (those are to be
recognized and used as future references:
thesis/dissertation, formal printed
reports, journal/proceedings
papers/extended abstracts, poster
session, website (electronic data
base)

Semi-permanent archives: temporary or

limited publication for some reasons and not
used yet as reference.