METROLOGY & TOLERANCE ENGINEERING

(MAE 622)

K.Srinivasulu Reddy
Department of Mechanical & Vehicle
Engineering
Adama Science & Technology University
1

Unit I INTRODUCTION:
Metrological concepts - Abbe's principle - need for high precision measurements problems associated with high precision measurements.
Unit II MEASUREMENT, GAUGING AND GEAR & THREAD MEASUREMENT
Standards for length measurement - Shop floor standards and their calibration Method of coincidence - Slip gauge calibration - Measurement errors. Angular
measurements - principles and instruments. Gear and Thread measurements.
Various tolerances and their specifications, gauging principles, selective assembly,
comparators.
Unit III SURFACE AND FORM METROLOGY
Surface and form metrology - flatness, roughness, waviness, roundness,
cylindricity, etc.
Unit IV COMPUTER AIDED METROLOGY
Computer Aided Metrology - Principles and interfacing, software metrology. Laser
metrology - Applications of Lasers in precision measurements - Laser
interferometer, speckle measurements, laser scanners.
Unit V CMM, IMAGE PROCESSING AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Coordinate Measuring Machine - Types of CMM - Probes used - Applications - Non
contact CMM using Electro optical sensors for dimensional metrology - Non
contact sensors for surface finish measurements. Image processing and its
application in Metrology.
2

Unit VI LIMITS AND FITS

Types of Fits, Limits, Limits and Fits in Metric System, Designation of standard
tolerances, Tolerance Grades, Position of Tolerance, System of Fits; Hole Basis
and Shaft Basis systems, relation between the systems, Fundamental relationship
between fits and tolerances, Selection of Fits; General Method using common fits,
Compatible tolerances with the methods of manufacturing.
Unit VII TOLERANCE ANALYSIS
Introduction to interchangeability and selective assembly, Addition of Tolerances,
Subtraction of Tolerances, Tolerancing Dimensions between centers of two holes
using series, parallel and combination methods,
Unit VIII GEOMETRICAL TOLERANCES
Why use GT? What is Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing?(GDT),
Geometric Characteristics, Symbols of GT, Maximum
Material Condition (MMC), Least Material Condition (LMC), Regardless of Feature
size (RFS), Datum, Datum Identification and symbol.

When you can measure what you are speaking

about and express it in numbers, you know
something about it, but when you cannot
measure it, when you cannot express it in
numbers, your knowledge is of a meager and
unsatisfactory kind.

-Lord Kelvin
British Scientist
(1824-1907)

What is Metrology?
Metrology is the science of measurement of
dimensions, and measurement is the language of
science.
Measurement can be defined as the determination
of a dimension
If science is measurement,
metrology, there is no science.

then

without

History:
Measurements have been carried out by humans for as
long as civilization has existed. From the primitive
population who lived in caves to modern man, the need has
always been there to measure and know.
The standard of length evolved from the foot of the
"King", to the Egyptian Royal cubit, to the metallic
metre(1960) and then monochromatic highly stabilized
light source or speed of light in 1983.

1 royal cubit = 7 palms = 28 fingers

metre(meterin the US)

The Metrebar served as standard until 1960 when
the
metre
was
redefined
in
terms
of
thewavelengthof light emitted by thekrypton-86
isotope.
HistoricalInternational
Prototype Metrebar, made
of an alloy of platinum and
iridium,
that
was
the
standard from 1889 to
1960.
The metre was redefined yet again in 1983 in terms of
thespeed of light.
Metre is defined as the length of the path travelled
by light in vacuum in 1/299,97,92458 seconds. This
can be realized in practice through the use of an
7
iodine-stabilised helium-neon laser.

Study of metrology is important

Bearings: Shaft in the bush is of
improper
dimensions
which
results insufficient thin film, and
hence friction, wear, lubrication
aspects etc.

Why metrology is important?

ACCIDENT OFALASKA AIRLINES FLIGHT 261

The most serious process error resulted in the loss

ofAlaska Airlines on January 31,2000 with 83
passengers.
9

Excessive thread wear on the jackscrew assembly

resulted in loss ofthe horizontal stabilizer.
The mechanic work card stated that threadwear was
"within allowable limits. In fact, the threads on
thejackscrew nut were almost completely worn
away.
The process (fixtures) used by the mechanic were
not what Boeing specified and therefore the
measurement results were different
and 83
people+crew lost their lives!

10

Recoveredjackscrew- the spiral

'wire' wound around the threaded
portion is the remains of the acme
nut internalscrew threadthat has
been stripped from the nut, which,
freeing the jackscrew.

Random
procedures
random results.

11

produce

Types of
Metrology

Subfield

Scientific or
fundamental
metrology

Applied or
industrial metrology

Legal metrology

Definition
concerns the establishment ofquantity
systems,
unit
systems,units
of
measurement, the development of new
measurement methods.
concerns the application of measurement
science to manufacturing and other
processes and their use in society, ensuring
the suitability of measurement instruments,
their calibration and quality control of
measurements.
concerns
regulatory
requirements
of
measurements and measuring instruments
for the protection of health, public safety,
the environment, protection of consumers
and fair trade.
12

Process of measurement:
1.Measurand
2.Reference
3.Comparator
1.Measurand: Measurand is the physical quantity or
property like length, angle, diameter, thickness etc. to
be measured.
2.Reference: It is the physical quantity or property to
which quantitative comparisons are made.
3.Comparator: It is the means of comparing measurand
with some reference
Ex: Fitter has to measure MS flat with steel rule
1.Aligns the zero end of steel rule with one end of MS flat.
2.Compares the length of flat with the graduations on the rule
by his eyes.
13
Here,

Basic
definitions
1.Nominal size(Basic size): It is the size of a part
specified in the drawing as a matter of convenience.
limits of size are based on nominal size. It may be a
whole number or decimal number.
2. True size: It is the theoretical size of a dimension,
which is free from any errors of measurement
3.Actual size: It is the value of size obtained through
measurement with the permissible measuring error
4.Exact size: It is the value of size obtained with the
highest metrological accuracy attainable in practice
5.Error of measurement: It is the difference
between the true value of the size being measured
14
and the value found by measurement(actual
or exact)

6.Sensitivity: The smallest change in a measurement

that an instrument is capable of detecting.
Sensitivity refers to the ability of measuring device to
detect small differences in a quantity being
measured.
Sensitivity may be defined as the rate of
displacement of the indicating device of an
instrument, with respect to the measured quantity.
Sensitivity= scale spacing/scale division value
Ex: In dial indicator, scale spacing is 1.0 mm and scale
division value is 0.01 mm
Sensitivity=

1/0.01=100=

Amplification
15

factor

Which is more sensitive?

16

7.Calibration: The comparison of a device with

unknown accuracy to a device with a known, accurate
standard to eliminate any variation in the device being
checked.
It is carried out by making adjustments such that the
read out device produces zero output for zero
measured input.
Calibration is a premeasurement
carried out by manufacturers.

process, generally

The accuracy of an instrument depends on the

calibration. Constant use of instruments affect their
accuracy.
If the accuracy is to be maintained, the
17 instruments

8.Hysteresis: The delay between the action and

reaction of a measuring instrument.
The phenomenon of hysteresis is due to the
presence of dry friction as well as the properties of
elastic elements.
It results in the loading and unloading curves of the
instrument being separated by a difference called
hysteresis error.
It also results in the pointer not returning completely
to zero when the load is removed. Hysteresis is
particularly noted in instruments having elastic
elements.
18
The phenomenon of hysteresis in materials
is mainly

19

9.Repeatability: It is the ability of the measuring

instrument to repeat the same results for the
measurements for the same quantity, when the
measurements are carried out
-by the same observer
-with the same instrument
-under the same conditions
-without any change in location
-without change in the method of measurement
-and the measurements are carried out in short
intervals of time.
It may be expressed quantitatively 20in terms of

10.Reproducability: is the ability of an entire experiment or

study to be reproduced, either by the researcher or by someone
else working independently.
It is one of the main principles of the scientific method
Reproducibility also refers to the degree of agreement between
measurements or observations conducted on replicate specimens
in different locations by different people, as part of the precision of
a test method

It may also be expressed quantitatively in terms of

the dispersion of the results.
21

11.Precision & Accuracy

Precision and accuracy are used in connection with
the performance of the instrument.
Precision is defined as the repeatability of the
measuring process, while the accuracy is the
agreement of the result of a measurement with the
true value of the measured quantity.
In most measurements, it is the precision which is
of great importance.
If the instrument is not precise, it will give different
results for the same dimension when measured
again and again.
22

12.Accuracy: Accuracy is the degree to which the

measured value of the quality characteristic agrees with
the true value.
The difference between the true value and
measured value is know as error of measurement.

the

Dimensio
n

It is practically difficult to measure exactly the true

value and therefore a set of observations is made whose
Ex: Several
measurements
made
onvalue
a component
by
mean
value
is taken asare
the
true
of the quality
different types of instruments and results are plotted
measured.

23

24

Excessive accuracy is a sign of poor breeding - Socrates.

25

26

Normal Distribution
The most widely known and used of all distributions is the
normal distribution. It fits many human characteristics,
such as height, weight, performance etc.
Many living things in nature, such as trees, animals and
insects have many characteristics that are normally
distributed.
Many variables in business and industry are also normally
distributed.
Normal distribution is also called the Gaussian distribution.
27

Frequency distribution and Normal distribution(Gaussian)

55 people weight distribution

1+3+8+14+15+9+4+1= 55

28

is Std. deviation

29

The formula for Normal distribution

30

Standard Deviation
The set of observations will scatter about the
mean. The scatter of these measurements is
designated as sigma(), the standard deviation,

Standard deviation is used as index of precision.

The less the scattering more precise is the
instrument. Thus, lower the value of , the
Standard
deviation
(root mean square deviation)
more precise
the instrument.
shows how much variation or dispersion" exists
from the average (mean, or expected value).
A low standard deviation indicates that the data
points tend to be very close to themean, whereas
high standard deviation indicates that the data
points are spread out over a large range
31 of values.

Interchangeability & Selective assembly

Interchangeability: The ability to replace the components,
parts, or equipment of one manufacturer with those of another,
without losing function or suitability.

1.Complete interchangeability or random assembly:

Any

component,

assembles

with

any

other

component costly
Examples of Complete Interchangeability:
Electric lamps (socket diameters and screw thread), plugs, razor
blades, screws, nuts, and roller bearings can only be used
provided that interchangeability is complete.

32

2. Selective or partial interchangeability or selective assembly

Today the consumer not only wants quality, precision and
trouble free products but also he wants them at attractive prices.
This has become possible only by adopting automatic gauging
for selective assembly whereby parts manufactured to rather
wide tolerances fit and function as though they were precisely
manufactured in precision laboratory to very close tolerances.
In selective assembly the components produced by a machine
are classified into several groups according to size. This is done
both for hole and shaft and then the corresponding groups will
match properly.
Parts are graded according to size and only matched grades of
mating parts are assembled.
33

If some parts (shaft and holes) to be assembled are manufactured

to normal tolerances of 0.01 mm (and both are within the curve of
normal distribution), an automatic gauge can segregate them into
ten different groups with a 0.001 mm limit for selective assembly of
the individual parts.
Thus parts with tolerances of 0.001 mm are obtained (due to
segregation) and both the conditions of high quality and low cost
can be served by selective assembly technique.

Requirement: Two component parts to be fitted together must be

kept within the normal distribution, the process capability of two
machines producing shafts and holes must be identical.
34

Process capability index

Desired mean value of

hole

Process capability of
hole(H) making
machine

USL=Upper Specification Limit

LSL=Lower Specification Limit

Desired mean value of

shaft

Process capability of
shaft(S) making
machine

35

Process capability is the ability of a process/machine to produce

output within specification limits
Fig. shows a case in which the process capability of both
shaft and hole producing machines is same but tolerances on
parts are desired as one-tenth of process capability of machines.
In such a case the parts are segregated by automatic inspection
into ten groups and parts in shaft region are matched with parts in
hole region.
This results in matching of parts having tolerances l/10th of
machine capability.
In this case as the process capability of both machines is same,
equal number of parts are available in each segregated
zone and no wastage will be there.
36

No. of groups= process capability/ tolerance desired

37

Interchangeability: Interchangeability of parts made possible mass production of

identical products.

38

Selective assembly

This is often used to avoid high costs of tight tolerancing by classifying small shafts
with small holes, etc.
39

LIMITS, FITS &TOLERANCES

Terms & Definitions

40

TERMS & DEFINITIONS Contd.

Zero deviation

41

Shaft: The term shaft refers not only to the diameter of a circular
shaft but to any external dimension on a component
Hole: Hole refers not only to the diameter of a circular hole but to
any internal dimension on a component
Basic or Nominal size: The size from which the limits of size are
derived by the application of upper and lower deviation.
Basic size is the zero line.
Basic size is same for both the hole and its shaft.
Basic size can be a whole number or a decimal number.
Ex: 32,15,8.75 mm etc
Any size more than the basic will be above the zero line and any
size less than basic size will be below the zero line and size equal
to basic size will be at zero line.
42

Tolerance: The difference between the upper and lower limits is called
the tolerance. (Or) The algebraic difference between upper and lower
deviations, and it is an absolute value.
Shaft of dia. 40.00 0.05 = 40.05 mm and 40.00 0.05 = 39.95 mm
The dimension 40.05 mm is called the upper limit and the dimension
39.95 mm is called the lower limit.
Tolerance = upper limit lower limit = 40.05 30.95 = 0.10 mm
Tolerance is always a positive quantitative number
For a shaft:
The maximum metal limit is the upper limit
The minimum metal limit is the lower limit
For a hole:
The maximum metal limit is the lower limit
The minimum metal limit is the upper limit

43

Maximum material condition (MMC) :The condition

when the part weights the most.
The MMC of a shaft is at the maximum size of the
tolerance and the MMC of the hole is at the minimum
size of the hole.
Ex: MMC of the hole of Dia. 4 +/- 0.02 mm is Dia.
3.98mm.
MMC of shaft of Dia.10 +0/-0.005 mm is Dia. 10.00
Least material condition (LMC) The condition when
mm.
the part weights the least.
The LMC of a shaft is at the minimum size of the
tolerance and the LMC of the hole is at the maximum
size of the hole.
Ex: LMC of the hole Dia. 4+/-0.02 is Dia. 4.02 mm.
LMC of shaft Dia. 10+0/-0.005 is Dia. 9.995
mm.
44

TYPES OF TOLERANCE
There are 2 systems of writing tolerances

Unilateral: Dimension of a part is allowed to vary only on

one side of basic size, either above or below it.
Bilateral: Dimension of the part is allowed to vary on both
the sides of the basic size, the limits of tolerance lie on
either side of the basic size, but may not be necessarily
45
equally disposed about it.

Unilateral
Tolerance

Bilateral
tolerance

46

Deviation: The algebraic difference between a

size(actual) and the corresponding basic size.
a.Upper deviation: This is the amount from the
basic size or zero line, to the maximum limit of size
for either a hole or a shaft.
Designated by ES for hole , es for shaft
This is +ve when max. limit of size is greater than the
basic
size deviation: This is the amount from the
b. Lower
This
veorwhen
max.
of size islimit
lessofthan
basicissize
zero line
to limit
the minimum
size.the
basic size
Designated by EI for hole and ei for shaft.
This is +ve when the min. limit of size is greater than
the basic size
47
This is ve when the min limit of size is less than the

Fundamental deviation: This is one of the two

deviations which is conventionally chosen to define
the position of the tolerance zone in relation to the
zero line.
This may be upper or lower deviation which is closest
to
the zeroline
line.(Basic Size) to superior size of shaft.
es:zero
ei: zero line (Basic Size) to inferior size of shaft.
ES:zero line (Basic Size) to superior size of hole.
EI: zero line (Basic Size) to inferior size of hole.
French term ecart superieur & ecart inferieur

Basic shaft and Basic hole: The shafts and holes that have zero
fundamental deviation.
Basic hole has zero lower deviation where as basic shaft has zero
upper deviation
48

TOLERANCES ON COMPONENTS

Tolerance is permissible variation in the dimension of the

component.

Due to inherent inaccuracies in Manufacturing processes

tolerances have to be provided.

Concepts of basic size, limits, deviations and tolerances

-

Shaft

49

TOLERANCES ON COMPONENTS

Concepts of basic size, limits, deviations and tolerances

-

Hole

50

TOLERANCES ON COMPONENTS

Basic Shaft:
Upper deviation (es) = Basic size Upper limit = 0

51

TOLERANCES ON COMPONENTS

Basic Hole:
Lower deviation (EI) = Basic size Lower limit = 0

52

(-ve) Below the zero line

Fundamental deviation which is closest to the zero line

53

(+ve) Above the zero line

54

Fit: It is the relation between dimensions of two

mating parts before their assembly.
Theoretically 3 types of fits possible. In actual practice, it is
necessary to define a large variety of fits within the same type to
account for all possible engineering situations.
Innumerable fits ranging from extreme clearance to those of
extreme interference can be obtained by a suitable combination of
fundamental tolerances and fundamental deviations.
Each of 25 holes has a choice of 18 tolerances.
Based on fundamental deviations, holes and
shafts are indicated by letter symbols (capital letters A to Zc for
holes and small letters a to zc for shafts.
Holes & Shafts:

These
are
:
A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,JS,
N,P,R,S,T,U,V,X,Y,Z,ZA,ZB,ZC

J,
55

K,

M,

Standard Limit System: 3 deciding

factors
1.Functional requirement(What it is required to do)
2.Interchangeability(Ease of replacement in the
event of failure)
3.Economics(Minimisation of production time and

In order to have universal interchangeability it is

cost)
essential to follow a uniform standard throughout
the world.
To assist the designer in the choice of limits & fits and
to encourage uniformity through out, some standard
on, limit and fit is established.
a. British Standard BS-4500-1969
b. The International Standard ISO:286-1988
56

All these standards basically make use of the

following to give innumerable fits
1.Standard tolerance (Fundamental tolerance)
2.Fundamental deviation
Grade of Tolerance: It is an indication of the
level of accuracy.
There are 18 grades of tolerances IT01, IT0, IT1 to
IT16
IT01 to IT4 - For production of gauges, plug gauges,
measuring instruments
IT5 to IT7 For fits in precision engineering
applications
IT8
to IT11 have
For General
Engineering
Tolerances
parabolic
relationship with the size of
IT12
to IT14 For Sheet metal working or press
the products.
working
57
As the size increases, tolerance within which
a part can
IT15 to IT16 For processes like casting, general

Standard Tolerance: Various grades of tolerances

are defined using the standard tolerance unit,
(i) in m, which is a function of basic size.
i= 0.004D + 2.1
where, D (mm) is
upper diameters
which the chosen

for D<500
mm D>500 mm
for

the geometric mean of the lower and

of a particular diameter step within
the diameter D lies.

Diameter steps in I.S.I are: (a-b, where a is above and

b is up to)
1-3, 3-6, 6-10, 10-18, 18-30, 30-50, 50-80, 80-120,
120-180, 180-250, 250-315, 315-400 and 400-500 mm
58

Grades of tolerance Contd..

For IT01, Tolerance =0.3 + 0.08D

For IT0, Tolerance=0.5+0.12D
For IT1, Tolerance=0.8+0.02D
IT2 to IT4 are regularly scaled approximately,
geometrically between the values of IT1 and IT5
(IT1 is given above and IT5 given in table below)
Where D is in millimeters

Grad
es

Valu
es

IT5

IT6

7i

10i

IT7

IT8

IT9

IT1
0

IT1
1

16i

25i

40i

64i

100i 160i 250i 400i 640i 100

0i

Table2-Fundamenta
l deviations

IT1
2

IT1
3

59

IT1
4

IT1
5

IT1
6

INTERNATIONAL TOLERANCE GRADES

Values In
Microns
Values
For D In
mm

IT01

IT0

IT1

0.3+0.008
D

0.5+0.01
2D

0.8+0.020D

INTERNATIONAL TOLERANCE GRADES

Values
In
IT5
Microns

IT6

IT7

IT8

IT9

IT10

IT11

IT12

IT13

IT14

IT15

IT16

Values
For D In
mm

10i

16i

25i

40i

64i

100i

160i

250i

400i

640i

1000i

7i

60

Table :Formulae for Fundamental Deviations

for Shafts for sizes upto 500 mm
Upper Deviation (es)
Lower Deviation (ei)
Shaft
In microns
Shaft
In microns
Designation
(for D in mm)
Designation
(for D in mm)
= -(265 + 1.3D)
J5 to j8
No formula
for D 120
a
and = 3.52D
k4 to k8
= + 0.6 D1/3
for D > 120
(140 + 0.85D)
k for grade
=0
for D 160
3 and 4
b
= 1.82D
m
= + (IT7-IT6)
for D > 160
= 52 D 0.2
n
= + 5D0.34
for D 40
c
= -(95 + 0.8D)
p
= + IT7 + 0 to 5
for D > 40
= geometric mean of
r
values el for p and s
d
= 16D 0.44
= IT8 + 1 to 4
for D 50
s
e
= -llD0.41
= + IT7 to + 0.4D
for D > 50
f
g

= -5.5D0.41
= -2.5D0.34

=0

t
u
v
x
y
z
za
zb

= + IT7 + 0.63D
= + IT7 + D
= + IT7 + 1.25D
= + IT7 + 1.6D
= + IT7 + 2D
= + IT7 + 2.5D
= IT8 + 3 + 3.15D
= + IT9 + 4D

62

TOLERANCES ON COMPONENTS
Symbolic representation for tolerances on shafts and holes

63

For shafts a to h the upper deviation is below zero

line(-ve) and for shafts k to zc it is above the zero
line(+ve)
The deviation of the shaft from j to k either +ve or
ve
For holes A to H, the lower deviation is above the
zero line(+ve) and for K to ZC, it is below the zero
line(-ve)
Formulas are given to determine the fundamental
The deviation of the hole from J to K either +ve or
deviation.
ve
The other deviations(upper & lower) may be derived
directly using the tolerance IT.
Standard tolerances
Fundamental devations
18 grades: IT01 ,IT0
25 types: A- ZC (For holes)
and IT1-1T16
a- zc (For shafts)
64

Upper deviation of shafts from a to g are ve and

for h it is zero and lower deviation of the remaining
shafts is +ve.
For holes, lower deviation is +ve for holes A to G
and for H it is zero and
upper deviation of
remaining holes is ve.
Allowances: The difference between the hole
dimension and shaft dimension for any type of fit is
called allowance.

nce = Max. metal condition of hole Max. metal condition o

= Low limit of hole High limit of shaft

65

66

Designation of Holes, Shafts and Fits

A hole or a shaft is completely described if the
basic size, followed by the appropriate letter and
the number of tolerance grade is given.
1. A 50 mm H-hole, with the tolerance grade of IT7, is
50 H7.
2. A 50 mm f-shaft with the tolerance grade IT8 is 50 f8
.A fit is designated by the basic size common to both
the hole and
the shaft followed by symbols corresponding to each
element, the
hole is quoted first.
. Thus, if the basic size is 50mm, the 67hole is H7 and

APPLICATIONS
Measuring Instruments and
Production of Gauges
General Engineering/Industry
and Precision Fit
Semi Finished Product
Structural Engineering

IT Grade Range
IT01, IT0, IT1, IT2, IT3,
IT4,IT5,IT6
IT5, IT6,
IT7,IT8,IT9,IT10,
IT11,IT12
IT11, IT14, IT15, IT16
IT16 68

TOLERANCES ON COMPONENTS

Tolerances obtainable from different manufacturing processes:

69

FITS

The relation resulting from the difference between the sizes

before assembly.
Classification of Fits

Clearance Fit

Max. size of shaft

Transition Fit
Interference fit

Min. size of shaft Min. size of shaft

smaller than
smaller than
larger than
Min. size of hole
Max. size of hole
Max. size of hole
or
Max. size of shaft
than
Max. size of hole

70

larger

Allowance is +ve for clearance fit and ve for

71 interference fit

Standard tolerances
18 grades: IT01 ,IT0
and IT1-1T16

Fundamental deviations
25 types: A- ZC (For holes)
a- zc (For shafts)

72

FITS
When two parts are to be assembled, the relation
resulting from the difference between their sizes
before assembly is called a fit.
Depending on the actual limits of hole or shaft, the fit
may be clearance fit, transition fit or an interference
fit.
Clearance fit: The largest permitted shaft dia is
smaller than the dia of the smallest hole, so that
shaft can rotate or slide through with different
degrees of freedom according to the purpose of the
mating members

73

Interference fit: The min. permitted dia. of the shaft

is larger than the max. allowable dia. of the hole.
The shaft and the hole members are intended to be
attached permanently and used as a solid
component but according to the application of this
combination, this type of fit can be varied.
Transition fit: The dia. of the largest allowable hole
is greater than that of the smallest shaft, but the
smallest hole is smaller than the largest shaft, so
that a small +ve or ve clearance between the
shaft and hole members are employable.

74

FITS Contd..

Clearance Fit Maximum shaft dimension < Minimum hole

dimension

75

Clearance Fit Contd

In a clearance fit, the tolerance zone of the hole is

entirely above the tolerance zone of the shaft.
Always clearance

76

Clearance Fit Contd

Clearance Fit Contd

Min. clearance=Min. size of hole - Max. size of shaft

Max. clearance=Max.size of hole - Min.size of shaft
In this type of fit, the size limits for mating parts are
so selected that clearance between them always
occur.
Clearance fits may be
slide fit, easy sliding fit, running fit, slack running fit
and loose running fit.
Ex: Pully rotates on shaft

77 engine components
Clearance fit in various

Clearance Fit Contd

E-Exhaust valve
S-Spark Plug
I-Inlet valve
V-Valves
P-Piston
R-Connecting Rod
C-Crank shaft
W-Water cooling ways
Clearance fit between
Valve & valve bush
Cylinder liners,
Piston & cylinder

Interference Fit (or) Press fit (or) friction fit

Maximum Hole size < Minimum

Shaft size
Always interference for all sizes

FITS Contd..

79

Interference fit Contd..

Min. Interference=Max. size of hole Min size of shaft

Max. Interference=Min. size of hole Max. size of shat
80

Interference fit Contd..

In this type of fit, the size limits for the mating

parts are so selected that interference between
them always occur.
In an interference fit, the tolerance zone of the
hole is entirely below the tolerance zone of the
shaft.
The amount of interference determines the degree
of force required to assemble or mate the shaft to
the hole.
The quality of surface finish of the mating parts,
the size of the diameters, the metals from which
Ex:
1.Bearing
bushes all
in their
housing
they
are made,
affect
the quality of the fit
2.Small end of the connecting rod & piston
obtained.
81

Types of Interference fits: These are cheap and

efficient method of joining together two components.
1.Light press fit(H7p6): its use is confined to the
assembly of ferrous components which require
removal for purposes of renewal or replacement at
a lateral date.
Ex: Drill bush in jig plate

82

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Interference fit Contd..

Press Fit- Bush in a frame

Press Fit- Bush in a housing

83

Interference fit Contd..

2.Press fit(medium press or light drive fitH7/s6): Involves heating or refrigeration of one part,
powerful forces are brought into play, resulting in a
permanent joint between the two components.
Ex: Bearing bushes in alloy housings or castings,
pump impeller shaft

3.Heavy drive fit: Ex: Cylinder liner in a cast iron

block, producing a permanent or semi-permanent
assembly between liner and block.
84 to avoid the
large sizes require heating and shrinking

Interference fit Contd..

Cylinder Liner Shrink fit

Interference fit Contd..

Shring Fit- Locomotive wheel

Steel tire on a steam locomotive's

driving wheel is heated with gas
flames to expand and loosen it so it
may be slipped over the wheel.

86

Interference fit Contd..

Wooden wheel of bullock cart with iron rim

87

Interference fit Contd..

Applications

88

Transition Fit

FITS Contd..

Obtained by overlapping of tolerance zones of shaft

and hole Does not guarantee neither clearance nor
interference fit

89

Transition Fit Contd..

In this type of fit, the size limits for the mating parts are
so selected that either a clearance or interference may
occur depending upon the actual size of the mating
parts. It may be noted that in a transition fit, the
tolerance zones of hole and shaft overlap.
90

Transition fit Contd..

The transition fits may be force fit, tight fit and push
fit.
Interference is so light that hand pressure is sufficient to
cause entry of the shaft.
Ex: Hand wheel and indexing dial keyed to shaft (Lathe
machine with lead screw)

Maximum clearance= Maximum limit size of hole Minimum limit size of shaft
Maximum interference = Minimum limit size of hole Maximum limit size of shaft
91

Transition fit Contd..

Applications

92

Transition fit Contd..

Push Fit

Flange coupling keyed to the shaft

Keys in couplings

Push Fit

Transition fit Contd..

94

Lower deviation of hole is zero

Low limit of hole=basic size

Upper deviation of shaft is zero

High limit 95
of shaft = basic size

To obtain different types of fits, it is general

practice to vary tolerance zone of one of the
mating parts
HOLE BASED SYSTEMSize of hole is kept constant,
shaft size is varied
to get different fits.
Basic hole is chosen &
Different Fits are obtained
by changing shaft size
SHAFT BASED SYSTEMSize of shaft is kept constant,
hole size is varied
to get different fits.
Different Fits are obtained
by changing hole size
96

Hole basis system

Shaft basis system

1.Size of hole whose lower Size of shaft whose upper

deviation
is
zero(H-hole)
is deviation
is
zero(h-shaft)
is
assumed as the basic size.
assumed as basic size
2.Limits on the hole are kept Limits on the shaft are kept
constant and those of shaft are constant and those on the hole
varied to obtain desired type of are varied to have necessary fit
fit.
3.Hole basis system is prepared
in mass production, because it is
convenient and less costly to
make a hole of correct size due to
availability of standard drills and
reamers

This system is not suitable for

mass production because it is
inconvenient, time consuming
and costly to make a shaft of
correct size

4.It is much more easy to vary It is rather difficult to vary the

the shaft according to the fit hole sizes according to the fit
required
required
5.Gauging of shafts can be easily Being
internal
measurement,
and conveniently done with gauging of holes cannot be easily
adjustable gap gauges.
and conveniently done.
97

FITS

Recommended Fits based on Manufacturing Processes and Application:

98

99

100

101

FITS APPLICATIONS

102

103

104

Equivalent fits on the Hole-basis and shaft

105

106

Assume dia. Step of 18 & 24 &

FD of P hole is IT6 + 0 to 5

107

The fit is interference.

108

Difference between Tolerance & Allowance

Tolerance

Allowance

It is the permissible variation in It is the prescribed difference

the dimension of a part(either between the dimensions of two
a hole or shaft)
mating parts(hole and shaft)
It is the difference between It is the intentional difference
higher and lower limits of a between the lower limit of hole
dimension of a part
and higher limit of shaft
The tolerance is provided on Allowance is to be provided on
the dimension of a part as it is the dimension of mating parts
not possible to make a part to to obtain desired type of fit
exact specified dimension
It has absolute value without Allowance
may
sign
positive(clearance
fit)
negative(interference fit)
109

be
or

Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD & T)

Geometric tolerancing reading helps to understand to specify and

control the form, location and orientation of the features of
components and manufactured parts.
Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing is an efficient method
for describing the tolerancing mandated by the designer of the
part.
The Datum axis or Datum planes are to be used for locating other
features.
With GD&T all inspection will result in the same result. It will help
to understand if the dimension is within or out of tolerance.
Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing forces the designers to
totally consider functions, manufacturing 110
processes, and
inspection methods.

Tolerance Feature Indication/Feature Control Frame Symbol.

111

Primary Datum, Secondary Datum, and Tertiary Datum Planes: Datums

must be perpendicular to each other.
Primary Datum Plane: The primary datum is selected to provide functional
relationships, standardizations and repeatability between surfaces. A
standardization of size is desired in the manufacturing of a part. Consideration
of how parts are orientated to each other is very important. The chosen primary
datum must insure precise measurements.
Secondary Datum Plane: Secondary datums are produced perpendicular to
the primary datum so measurements can be referenced from them.
Tertiary Datum Plane: Tertiary datum is always perpendicular to both the
primary and secondary datums ensuring a fixed position from three related
parts.

112

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