CH2 - Scientific Measurements

Chapter 2:
Scientific Measurements
Chemistry: The Molecular

Nature of Matter, 6E
Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop
Properties
Characteristics used to classify matter
Physical properties
Can be observed without changing chemical
makeup of substance
Ex. Gold metal is yellow in color
Sometimes observing physical property causes
physical change in substance
Ex. Melting point of water is 0 C
Measuring melting temperature at which
solid turns to liquid
Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of
States of Matter
Solids:
Fixed shape & volume
Particles are close together
Have restricted motion
Liquids:
Fixed volume, but take container shape
Particles are close together
Are able to flow
Gases:
Expand to fill entire container
Particles separated by lots of space
Ex. Ice, water, steam
States of Matter
Physical Change
Change from 1 state to another
Physical States
Important in chemical equations
Ex. 2C4H10(g) + 13O2(g) 8CO2(g) + 10H2O(g)
Indicate after each substance with
abbreviation in parentheses
Solids = (s)
Liquids = ()
Gases = (g)
Aqueous solutions = (aq)
Chemical Properties
Chemical change or reaction that substance undergoes
Chemicals interact to form entirely different
substances with different chemical & physical
properties
Describes behavior of matter that leads to formation of
new substance
Reactivity" of substance
Ex. Iron rusting
Iron interacts with oxygen to form
new substance
Learning Check: Chemical or

Physical Property?
Chemical Physical
Magnesium metal is grey
Magnesium metal tarnishes in air X
Magnesium metal melts at 922 K

Magnesium reacts violently
with hydrochloric acid
Your Turn!
Which one of the following represents a physical
change?
A.when treated with bleach, some dyed fabrics
change color
B.grape juice left in an open unrefrigerated container
turns sour
C.when heated strongly, sugar turns dark brown
D.in cold weather, water condenses on the inside
surface of single pane windows
E.when ignited with a match in open air, paper burns
Intensive vs. Extensive

Properties
Intensive properties
Independent of sample size
Used to identify substances
Ex. Color
Density
Boiling point
Melting point
Chemical reactivity
Extensive properties
Depend on sample size
Ex. volume & mass
Identification of Substances by
Their Properties
Ex. Flask of clear liquid in lab. Do you drink
it?
What could it be?
What can we measure to determine
if it is safe to drink?
Density
Melting Point
Boiling Point
Electrical conductivity
1.00 g/mL
0.0 C
100 C
None
Gold or Fools Gold?

Can test by heating in flame
A.Real gold
Nothing happens
B.Pyrite (Fools Gold)

Sputters
Smokes
Releases foul-smelling fumes
Due to chemical ability to react chemically
with oxygen when heated
10
Your Turn!
Which of the following is an extensive
property?
A. Density
B. Melting point
C. Color
D. Temperature
E. Mass
11
Observations
Fall into 2 categories
1.Quantitative observations
Numeric data
Measure with instrument
Ex. Melting point, boiling point, volume, mass
2.Qualitative observations
Do not involve numerical information
Ex. Color, rapid boiling, white solid forms
12
Measurements Include Units!!

1. Measurements involve comparison
Always measure relative to reference
Ex. Foot, meter, kilogram
Measurement = number + unit

Ex. Distance between 2 points = 25
What unit? inches, feet, yards, miles
Meaningless without units!!!
2. Measurements are inexact

Measuring involves estimation
Always have uncertainty
The observer & instrument have inherent
physical limitations
13
International System of Units

Standard system of units
used in scientific &
(SI)
engineering measurements
Metric 7 Base Units
14
SI Units
Focus on 1st six in this book
All physical quantities will have units derived
from these 7 SI base units
Ex. Area
Derived from SI units based on definition of
area
length width = area
meter meter = area
m m = m2
SI unit for area = square meters = m2
Note: Units undergo same kinds of

mathematical
operations that numbers do!
15
Learning Check
What is the SI unit for velocity?
distance
Velocity(v)
time
meters m
Velocityunits
seconds s
What is the SI unit for volume of a cube?

Volume (V) = length width height
V = meter meter meter
V = m3
16
Your Turn!
The SI unit of length is the
A. millimeter
B. meter
C. yard
D. centimeter
E. foot
17
Table 2.2 Some Non-SI Metric Units

Commonly Used in Chemistry
18
Table 2.3 Some Useful

Conversions
19
Decimal Multipliers
20
Using Decimal Multipliers

Use prefixes on SI base units when number is too
large or too small for convenient usage
Only commonly used are listed here
For more complete list see Table 2.4 in textbook
Numerical values of multipliers can be interchanged

with prefixes
Ex. 1 mL = 103 L
1 km = 1000 m
1 ng = 109 g
1,130,000,000 s = 1.13 109 s = 1.13 Gs
21
Laboratory Measurements
4 common
1.
2.
3.
4.
Length
Volume
Mass
Temperature
22
Laboratory Measurements
1. Length
SI Unit is meter (m)
Meter too large for most
laboratory measurements
Commonly use
Centimeter (cm)
1 cm = 102 m = 0.01 m
Millimeter (mm)
1 mm = 103 m = 0.001
m
23
2. Volume (V)
Dimensions of (length)3
SI unit for Volume = m3
Most laboratory
measurements use V in
liters (L)
1 L = 1 dm3 (exactly)
Chemistry glassware
marked in L or mL
1 L = 1000 mL
What is a mL?
1 mL = 1 cm3
24
3. Mass
SI unit is kilogram (kg)
Frequently use grams (g) in laboratory as more
realistic size
1
1 kg = 1000 g
1 g = 0.1000 kg =
g
1000
Mass is measured by comparing weight of
sample with weights of known standard masses
Instrument used = balance
25
4. Temperature
Measured with thermometer
3 common scales
A.Fahrenheit scale
Common in US
Water freezes at 32 F and boils at 212 F
180 degree units between melting & boiling
points of water
26
4. Temperature
B. Celsius scale
Rest of world (aside from U.S.) uses
Most common for use in science
Water freezes at 0 C
Water boils at 100 C
100 degree units between melting &
boiling points of water
27
4. Temperature
C. Kelvin scale
SI unit of temperature is kelvin (K)
Note: No degree symbol in front of K
Water freezes at 273.15 K & boils at 373.15 K

100 degree units between melting & boiling points
Only difference between Kelvin & Celsius scale is zero

point
Absolute Zero
Zero point on Kelvin scale
Corresponds to natures lowest possible temperature
28
Temperature Conversions
How to convert
between F and
C?
9 F
tF
t 32 F
5 C C
Ex. 100
9 FC
= ? F
tF
100 C 32 F
5 C
tF = 212 F
29
Temperature Conversions
Common laboratory thermometers are
marked in Celsius scale
Must convert to Kelvin scale
1K
T K (t C 273.15 C)
1 C
Amounts to adding 273.15 to Celsius
temperature
Ex. What is the Kelvin temperature of a
solution at 25 C?
1K
T K (25 C 273.15 C)
= 298 K
1 C
30
1.
Learning Check: T
Convert 100.
F to the Celsius scale.
Conversions
tF
tC
9 F
5 C
t C 32 F
tC
5
C

100 F 32 F
9 F
5
C

t F 32 F
9 F
= 38 C
2. Convert 100. F to the Kelvin scale.

We already have in C so
1K
T K (t C 273.15 C)
1 C
(38 273.15 C)
1K
1 C
TK = 311 K
31
3.
Learning Check: T
Convert 77
K to the Celsius scale.
Conversions
T K (t C 273.15 C)
tC
1K
1 C
tC
1 C
(T K 273.15K)
1K
1 C
(77 K 273.15K)
= 196 C
1K
4. Convert 77 K to the Fahrenheit scale.

We already have in C so
tF
9 F
5 C
(196 C) 32 F = 321 F
32
Your Turn!
In a recent accident some drums of uranium
hexafluoride were lost in the English Channel. The
melting point of uranium hexafluouride is 64.53 C.
What is the melting point of uranium hexafluoride
on the Fahrenheit scale?
A. 67.85 F
B. 96.53 F
C. 116.2 F
D. 337.5 F
E. 148.2 F
tF
tF
9 F
5 C
9 F
5 C
t C 32 F
64.53 C 32 F
33
Uncertainties in
Measurements
Measurements
all inexact
Contain uncertainties or errors
Sources of errors
Limitations of reading instrument
Ways to minimize errors

Take series of measurements
Data clusters around central value
Calculate average or mean values
Report average value
34
Limits in Reading Instruments

Consider 2 Celsius thermometers
Left thermometer has markings
every 1 C
T between 24 C & 25 C
About 3/10 of way between marks
Can estimate to 0.1 C = uncertainty
T = 24.3 0.1 C
Right thermometer has markings

every 0.1 C
T reading between 24.3 C & 24.4 C
Can estimate 0.01 C
T = 24.32 0.01 C
35
Limits in Reading Instruments

Finer graduations in markings
Means smaller uncertainties in
measurements
Reliability of data
Indicated by number of digits used to
represent it
What about digital displays?

Mass of beaker = 65.23 g on digital balance
Still has uncertainty
Assume in last readable digit
Record as 65.230 0.005 g
36
Significant Figures
Scientific convention:
All digits in measurement up to &
including 1st estimated digit are
significant.
Number of certain digits plus 1st uncertain

digit
Digits in measurement from 1st non-zero
number on left to 1st estimated digit on
right
37
Rules for Significant Figures

1. All non-zero numbers are significant.
Ex. 3.456
has 4 sig. figs.
2. Zeros between non-zero numbers

are significant.
Ex. 20,089
or
2.0089 104
has 5 sig. figs
3. Trailing zeros always count as significant if

number has decimal point
Ex. 500.
or
5.00 102
has 3 sig. figs

38
Rules for Significant Figures

4. Final zeros on number without decimal point
are NOT significant
Ex. 104,956,000
or
1.04956 10 8
has 6 sig. figs.
5. Final zeros to right of decimal point are

significant
Ex. 3.00
has 3 sig. figs.
6. Leading zeros, to left of 1 st nonzero digit,

are never counted as significant
Ex. 0.00012 or
1.2 104
has 2 sig. figs.

39
Learning Check
How many significant figures does each of
the following numbers have?
scientific notation # of Sig. Figs.
1.413.97
4.1397 102
6 104
5
1
4.161,000
5.120063
1.61 105
7
3
5.3600.
3.6 103
2.0.0006
3.5.120063
40
Your Turn!
How many significant figures are in 19.0000?
A. 2
B. 3
C. 4
D. 5
E. 6
41
Rounding to Correct Digit

1. If digit to be dropped is greater than 5, last remaining
digit is rounded up.
Ex. 3.677 is rounded up to 3.68
2. If number to be dropped is less than 5, last remaining
digit stays the same.
Ex. 6.632 is rounded to 6.63
3. If number to be dropped is 5, then if digit to left of 5 is
a.Even, it remains the same.
b.Odd, it rounds up
42
Scientific Notation
Clearest way to present number of significant figures
unambiguously
Report number between 1 & 10 followed by correct power of
10
Indicates only significant digits
Ex. 75,000 people attend a concert

If rough estimate?
Uncertainty 1000 people
7.5 104
Number estimated from aerial photograph
Uncertainty 100 people
7.50 104
43
Learning Check
Round each of the following to 3 significant
figures. Use scientific notation where needed.
1.37.459
2.5431978
3.132.7789003
4.0.00087564
5.7.665
37.5 or 3.75
101
5.43 106
133 or 1.33 102
8.77 104
7.66
44
Accuracy & Precision

Accuracy
How close measurement is to true
or accepted true value
Measuring device must be
calibrated with standard reference
to give
correct value
Precision
How well set of repeated
measurements of same quantity
agree with each other
More significant figures = more
preciseJespersen/Brady/Hyslop
measurement
45
Significant Figures in
Calculations
Multiplication
and Division
Number of significant figures in answer =
number of significant figures in least
precise measurement
Ex. 10.54 31.4 16.987= 5620 = 5.62103

4 sig. figs. 3 sig. figs. 5 sig. figs = 3 sig.
figs.
= 700 = 7102
Ex. 5.896 0.008
4 sig. figs. 1 sig. fig. = 1 sig. fig.
46
Your Turn!
Give the value of the following calculation to the correct
number of significant figures.
635.4 0.0045
2.3589
A. 1.21213
B. 1.212
C. 1.212132774
D. 1.2
E. 1
47
Significant Figures in
Calculations
Addition and
Subtraction
Answer has same number of decimal
places as quantity with fewest number of
decimal places.
Ex.
12.9753
319.5
+ 4.398
336.9
4
1
3
1
Ex.
397
273.15
124
0 decimal places
2 decimal places
0 decimal place
decimal places
decimal place
decimal places
decimal place
48
Your Turn!
When the expression,
412.272 + 0.00031 1.00797 + 0.000024 + 12.8
is evaluated, the result should be expressed as:
A. 424.06
B. 424.064364
C. 424.1
D. 424.064
E. 424
49
Exact Numbers
Number that come from definitions
12 in. = 1 ft
60 s = 1 min
Numbers that come from direct count

Number of people in small room
Have no uncertainty
Assume they have infinite number of significant
figures.
Do not affect number of significant figures in
multiplication or division
50
Learning Check
For each calculation, give the answer to the
correct number of significant figures.
1.10.0 g + 1.03 g + 0.243 g =11.3 g or
1.13 101 g
2.19.556 C 19.552 C =0.004 C or
4 103 C
3.327.5 m 4.52 m =1.48 103 m
4.15.985 g 24.12 mL =0.6627 g/mL
or 6.627 g/mL
51
Learning Check
For the following calculation, give the answer
to the correct number of significant figures.
(71.359 m 71.357 m)
(0.002 m)
2
(3.2
s
3.67
s)
(1
1.744
s
)
1.
= 2 104 m/s2
2.
(13.674 cm 4.35 cm 0.35 cm )

(856 s + 1531.1 s)
3
(20.818665 cm )
= 0.87 cm3/s
(2387.1 s)
52
Your Turn!
For the following calculation, give the
answer to the correct number of significant
figures.(14.5 cm 12.334 cm)
(2.223 cm 1.04 cm)
A. 179 cm2
(178.843 cm2 )
(1.183 cm)
B. 1.18 cm
C. 151.2 cm
D. 151 cm
E. 178.843 cm2
53
Dimensional Analysis
Factor-Label Method
Not all calculations use specific equation
Use units (dimensions) to analyze problem
Conversion Factor
Fraction formed from valid equality or
equivalence between units
Used to switch from one system of
measurement & units to another
Given
Conversion = Desired
Quantit
Factor
Quantit
y
y
54
Conversion Factors
Ex. How to convert a persons height from 68.0 in to cm?
Start with fact
2.54 cm = 1 in.
Dividing both sides by 1 in. or 2.54 cm gives 1
2.54
Cancel
units 1 in.
cm
that equals
= 11
Leave ratio
1 in.
1 in.
2.54cm
1 in.
=1
2.54cm 2.54cm
Use fact that units behave as numbers do in

mathematical operations
55
Dimensional Analysis
Now multiply original number by conversion factor that
cancels old units & leaves new
Given Conversion = Desired

Factor
Quantit
Quantit
y
y
2.54cm
68.0in. analysis can=tell
173
cm we have done
Dimensional
us when
1 in.
wrong arithmetic
Units not correct
1 in.
68.0in.
= 26.8 in2/cm
2.54cm
56
Using Dimensional Analysis

Ex. Convert 0.097 m to mm.
Relationship is 1 mm = 1 103 m
Can make 2 conversion factors
1 103 m
1 mm
1 mm
1 10 3 m
Since going from m to mm use one on left.

0.097m
1 mm
3
1 10
= 173 cm
57
Learning Check
Ex. Convert 3.5 m3 to cm3.
Start with basic equality
Now cube both sides
1 cm = 0.01 m
Units & numbers

(1 cm)3 = (0.01 m)3
1 cm3 = 1 106 m3
Can make 2 conversion factors
1 cm3
1 106 m3
or
1 10 6 m3
1 cm3
3
1
c
m
3.5 m3
3.5 106 Cm3
1 10 6 m3
58
Non-metric to Metric Units

Convert speed of light from 3.00108 m/s to
mi/hr
Use dimensional analysis
1 min = 60 s
60 min = 1 hr
1 km =8 1000 m 1 mi = 1.609 km
3.00 10 m 60 s 60 min
1.08 1012 m/hr

s
1 min 1 hr
1.08 1012 m 1 km
1 mi
hr
1000m 1.609km
6.71 108 mi/hr
59
Your Turn!
The Honda Insight hybrid electric car has a gas
mileage rating of 56 miles to the gallon. What is this
rating expressed in units of kilometers per liter?
1 gal = 3.784 L
1 mile = 1.609 km
A. 1.3 102 km L1
B. 24 km L1
C. 15 km L1
D. 3.4 102 km L1
mi
1 gal 1.609km
56
gal 3.784L
1 mi
E. 9.2 km L1
60
Law of Multiple Proportions

If 2 elements form more than 1 compound
they combine in different ratios by mass
Same mass of 1 element combines with
different masses of 2nd element in different
compounds
Experimentally hard to get exactly same
mass of 1 element in 2 or more
experiments
Can use dimensional analysis to calculate
61
Applying Law of Multiple

Titanium formsProportions
2 different compounds with
bromine. In compound A we find that 4.787
g of Ti are combined with 15.98 g of
bromine. In compound B we find that 6.000
g of Ti are combined with 40.06 g of
bromine. Determine whether these data
support the law of multiple proportions.
Analysis
Need same mass of 1 element & compare
masses of 2nd element
6.000 g Ti for each
How much Br?
62
Applying Law of Multiple

Proportions
Know:
In compound A:
In compound B:
4.787 g Ti 15.98 g Br
6.000 g Ti 40.06 g Br
Must find:
6.000 g Ti ? g Br (compound A)
Solution:
15.98g Br
6.000g Ti
= 20.03 g Br
4.787g Ti
40.06g Br 2
Compare
20.03 g Br 1
Ratio of small whole numbers
Supports law of multiple proportions
63
Density
Ratio of objects mass to its volume
mass
density
volume
m
d
V
Intensive property (size independent)

Determined by taking ratio of 2 extensive properties (size
dependent)
Frequently ratio of 2 size dependent properties leads to
size independent property
Sample size cancels
Units
g/mL or g/cm3
64
Learning Check
A student weighs a piece of gold that has a
volume of 11.02 cm3 of gold. She finds the
mass to be 212 g. What is the density of
gold?
m
d
V
d
212g
11.02 cm3
19.3 g/cm3
65
Density
Most substances expand slightly when heated
Same mass
Larger volume
Less dense
Density slightly as T
Liquids & Solids
Change is very small
Can ignore except in very precise calculations
Density useful to transfer between mass & volume of

substance
66
Learning Check
1. Glass has a density of 2.2 g/cm3. What is
the volume occupied by 22 g of glass?
m
22 g
V
10. g/cm3
d 2.2 g/cm3
2. What is the mass of 400 cm3 of glass?

m d V 2.2 g/cm3 400. cm3 880 g
67
Your Turn!
Titanium is a metal used to make artificial
joints. It has a density of 4.54 g/cm 3. What
volume will a titanium hip joint occupy if its
mass is 205 g?
205g
2
3
A. 9.31 10 cm
V
3
4
.54
g
cm
B. 4.51 101 cm3
C. 2.21 102 cm3
D. 1.07 103 cm3
E. 2.20 101 cm3
68
Your Turn!
A sample of zinc metal (density = 7.14 g cm -3) was
submerged in a graduated cylinder containing water. The
water level rose from 162.5 cm3 to 186.0 cm3 when the
sample was submerged. How many grams did the sample
weigh?
A. 1.16 103 g
B. 1.33 103 g
C. 23.5 g
mass density volume

volume ( 186.0cm3 162.5 cm3 )
23.5cm3
D. 1.68 102 g
E. 3.29 g
mass 7.14g cm3 23.5cm3
69
Specific Gravity
Ratio of density of substance to density of
water
densityof substance
specificgravity
densityof water
Unitless
Way to avoid having to tabulate densities in
all sorts of different units
70
Learning Check
Concentrated sulfuric acid is sold in bottles with a label
that states that the specific gravity at 25 C is 1.84. The
density of water at 25 C is 0.995 g cm 3. How many
cubic centimeters of sulfuric acid will weigh 5.55
kilograms?
Analysis:
5.55 kg sulfuric acid = ? cm3 sulfuric acid
Solution:
density sulfuric acid = specific gravity density water
dsulfuric acid = 1.84 0.995 g/cm3 = 1.83
m
5.55 kg
3
Vsulfuricacid
5.58
cm
d 0.995g/cm3
71
Your Turn!
Liquid hydrogen has a specific gravity of
7.08 102. If the density of water is 1.05 g/cm3 at the
same temperature, what is the mass of hydrogen in a
tank having a volume of 36.9 m3?
dsulfuricacid specificgravitysulfuricacid dH2O

A. 7.43 102 g
dsulfuric 7.08 102 1.05g/cm3
B. 2.74 g
acid
C. 274 g
= 7.43 102 g/cm3
D. 2.74 106 g
E. 2.61 106 g
msulfuricacid 7.43 102 g/cm3

100cm
36.9m
1m
3
72
Importance of Reliable
Measurements
To trust conclusions
drawn from measurements
Must know they are reliable
Must be sure they are accurate
Measured values must be close to true values
Otherwise cant trust results
Cant make conclusions based on those results
Must have sufficient precision to be meaningful

So confident that 2 measurements are same
for 2 samples
Difference in values must be close to uncertainty
in measurement
73
Learning Check
You have a ring? Is it made of 24K gold?
Calculate density & compare to known
Density of 24 K gold = 19.3 g/mL
Use inaccurate glassware

Volume of ring = 1.0 mL
Use kitchen balance

Mass of ring = 18 1 g
Anywhere between 17 & 19 g
Density range is 17 19 g/mL
Could be 24 k gold or could be as low as 18K gold (density

= 16.9 g/mL)
74
Learning Check (cont)

Use more precise laboratory balance
Mass of ring = 18.153 0.001 g
Use more precise glassware

Volume of ring = 1.03 mL
Density of ring = 18.153 g/1.03mL = 17.6 g/mL
Calculate difference between d24K gold & dring

19.3 g/mL 17.6 g/mL = 1.7 g/mL
Larger than experimental error in density
~ 0.1 g/mL
Conclude: ring NOT 24 K gold!
75

CH2 - Scientific Measurements

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Chapter 2:

Chemistry: The Molecular

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

Ex. Ice, water, steam

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

Learning Check: Chemical or

Magnesium metal is grey

Magnesium metal tarnishes in air X

Magnesium metal melts at 922 K

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

Intensive vs. Extensive

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

Gold or Fools Gold?

B.Pyrite (Fools Gold)

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

Measurements Include Units!!

Measurement = number + unit

2. Measurements are inexact

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

International System of Units

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

Note: Units undergo same kinds of

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

What is the SI unit for volume of a cube?

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

Table 2.2 Some Non-SI Metric Units

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

Table 2.3 Some Useful

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

Using Decimal Multipliers

Numerical values of multipliers can be interchanged

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

Water freezes at 273.15 K & boils at 373.15 K

Only difference between Kelvin & Celsius scale is zero

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

2. Convert 100. F to the Kelvin scale.

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

4. Convert 77 K to the Fahrenheit scale.

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

Ways to minimize errors

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

Limits in Reading Instruments

Right thermometer has markings

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of

Limits in Reading Instruments