AIR POLLUTION

Any addition to air that threatens the health, survival, or

activities of humans or other living organisms
Air pollution is the modification of the natural
characteristics of the atmosphere by a chemical, particulate
matter, or biological agent.
POLLUTANTS
Chemicals found at high enough levels in the environment to
cause harm to people or other organisms.
Substances not naturally found in the air
concentrations or in different locations from usual.

or

at

greater

COMPOSITION OF CLEAN AIR

The air in our atmosphere consists mainly of nitrogen
(78%), oxygen (21%), and other gas (1%).
Oxygen is essential for most of life to exist.
All other elements mentioned in the chart also play
important roles for life on earth.
Another important part of the atmosphere is water which
is present as water vapour that has evaporated from the
Earth.
Clouds are formed from water vapour and water comes
back to the Earth as rain or snow.

The other components of air are small solid particles.

These aerosols act as condensers for water, (i.e. to
allow tiny water drops to hang on to them and enable
the formation of clouds.
Each time we release emissions into the atmosphere
we endanger the Earths natural balance.
Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has
long been recognized as a threat to human health as
well as to the Earth's ecosystems.

There are many substances in the air which may impair

the health of plants and animals (including humans), or
reduce visibility.
These arise both from natural processes and human
activity.
Pollutants can ALSO enter the environment naturally
(eg: from volcanic activity)

Worldwide air pollution is responsible for large

numbers of deaths and cases of respiratory disease.
While major stationary sources are often identified
with air pollution, the greatest source of emissions is
actually mobile sources, mainly automobiles.
Gases such as carbon dioxide, which contribute to
global warming, have recently gained recognition as
pollutants by climate scientists, while they also
recognize that carbon dioxide is essential for plant
life through photosynthesis.

WHAT ARE THE IMPURITIES

IN THE AIR?????

POLLUTANTS
CATEGORISED AS;

PRIMARY

substances directly emitted

from a process, such as ash
from a volcanic eruption or
the carbon monoxide gas
from a motor vehicle
exhaust.

SECONDARY
not emitted directly.
Rather, they form in the air
when primary pollutants
react or interact. Exampleground level ozone - one of
the many secondary
pollutants that make up
photochemical smog.

Note that some pollutants may be both primary and secondary:

that is, they are both emitted directly and formed from other
primary pollutants.

Major primary pollutants produced by human activity

include:
Sulfur oxides (SOx) especially sulfur dioxide are
emitted from burning of coal and oil.
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) especially nitrogen dioxide are
emitted from high temperature combustion. Can be
seen as the brown haze dome above or plume downwind
of cities.
Carbon monoxide is colourless, odourless, nonirritating but very poisonous gas. It is a product by
incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal
or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a major source of carbon
monoxide.
Carbon dioxide (CO2), a greenhouse gas emitted from
combustion.
Volatile organic compounds (VOC), such as
hydrocarbon fuel vapors and solvents.

Particulate matter (PM), measured as smoke and dust.

PM10 is the fraction of suspended particles 10
micrometers in diameter and smaller that will enter the
nasal cavity. PM2.5 has a maximum particle size of 2.5
m and will enter the bronchies and lungs. Toxic metals,
such as lead, cadmium and copper.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), harmful to the
ozone layer emitted from products currently banned
from use.
Ammonia (NH3) emitted from agricultural processes.
Odors, such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial
processes
Radioactive pollutants produced by nuclear explosions
and war explosives, and natural processes such as
radon.

Secondary pollutants include:

Particulate matter formed from gaseous primary
pollutants and compounds in photochemical smog,
such as nitrogen dioxide.
Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and
VOCs.
Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) similarly formed from
NOx and VOCs.
Minor air pollutants include:
A large number of minor
hazardous air pollutants. Some of these are
regulated in USA under the Clean Air Act and in
Europe under the Air Framework Directive.
A variety of persistent organic pollutants,

Dust storm approaching

Stratford, Texas

Using a controlled burn on a field in South Georgia

in preparation for spring planting.

Sources of air pollution refer to the various locations,

activities or factors which are responsible for the
releasing of pollutants in the atmosphere. These sources
can be classified into two major activities which are:

Anthropogenic sources
(human activity)

Natural sources

Anthropogenic sources (human activity) mostly related

to burning different kinds of fuel
"Stationary Sources" as smoke stacks of power
plants, manufacturing facilities, municipal waste
incinerators
"Mobile Sources" as motor vehicles, aircraft etc.
Combustion-fired power plants
Controlled burn practices used in agriculture and
forestry management
Motor vehicles generating air pollution emissions.
Marine vessels, such as container ships or
cruise ships, and related port air pollution.

Burning wood, fireplaces, stoves, furnaces and

incinerators
Oil refining, power plant operation and industrial
activity in general.
Chemicals, dust and crop waste burning in farming,
(see Dust Bowl).
Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish,
aerosol sprays and other solvents.
Waste deposition in landfills, which generate
methane.
Military uses, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases,
germ warfare and rocketry.

Natural sources
Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of
land with little or no vegetation.
Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by
animals, for example cattle.
Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's
crust.
Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires.
Volcanic activity, which produce sulfur, chlorine, and
ash particulates.

MEASUREMENT OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTANTS

(Concentration Units)
Typically, the concentration of atmospheric pollutants
by volume is very small. For gaseous pollutants, the
units used is usually parts per million (ppm) on volume
basis.
ppm = Vpol x 10 6
V

air

Where;
V pol = partial volume occupied by the pollutants in the
mixture at total pressure P and temperature T.
V air = total volume occupied by mixture at the same P
and T

When liquid or solid are involved, ppm means parts per

million by weight. The unit of micrograms of polluitant per
cubic metre of air is used as both for gaseoud pollutants
and particulate matter (Cu or ugm-3)
or the concentration is sometimes expressed in mgm -3 or
gm-3, ppm can be converted to Cu from the relationship
ppm = 8.314TCu
PMi
Where;
T= temperature in Kelvin
P = pressure in Pasca
Mi = molecular gas

Another useful formula is:

Gas concentration (mgm -3) = Ml ppm
24.4
Where molar volume at 25 oC, 101.3 kPa is 24.4 dm3.

SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION IN MALAYSIA

(Anthropogenic sources;human activity)

Industrial & development activities

Motor vehicles
Power generation
Everyday routine
Open burning

INDUSTRIAL AND DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES

Malaysias economic growth is mainly based on its
manufacturing (especially electronics), chemical and
rubber industries.
But higher production rates also lead to higher
emissions of organic and inorganic gases, chemicals and
dust.
Different industries emit different pollutants.
For example, the chemical industry releases emissions
that contain many nitrogen and sulphur compounds
while refineries discharge sulphur dioxide and
hydrocarbons.

The metal working industry is partially responsible for

the emissions of sulphur dioxide and large amounts of
toxic dust.
Human activities have resulted in harmful substances
and polluting emissions being released into the air.
They endanger our health and our natural ecosystem,
and lead to an additional greenhouse effect.
Besides emissions of toxic dust, unplanned and
uncontrolled development of industrial premises or
zones leads to noise pollution and vibration disturbance.
The use of conventional piling methods and the sound of
exhaust fans in factories are some of the common
activities that generate high sound level.

MOTOR VEHICLES
Modern society is highly dependent on motorized
transportation such as cars, trucks, and railways.
Movement of people and goods requires energy which
relies mostly on the burning of fossil fuels, thus causing
emissions and noise with adverse local effects.
The air quality of the different transport modes depends
on the kind of energy, engine technology and the
amount of energy consumed.

Within the transport sector motorized road

traffic is the main emission source while public
transport is environmentally friendlier than
passenger
cars.
In 2004, nearly 14 million vehicles were registered
in Malaysia, almost double the number from a
decade ago.
The number will increase in the next few years,
with higher disposable incomes, rural-urban
migration and the lack of efficient public transport
systems.

POWER GENERATION
Most of the energy is produced in conventional
power plants burning fossil fuels like natural gas, oil
or coal.
The effectiveness of these power plants is about
35 to 40 per cent with the remaining chemical
energy converted into heat.
At the moment, Malaysia produces 86% of its
electricity in conventional power plants and 14% in
hydroelectric power plants.

EVERYDAY ROUTINES
Household contribute to air pollution mainly
through the use of energy that is required to run
machines and electrical appliances such as
refrigerators.
Refrigerators and air conditioners not only
consume energy but they pollute the environment
when
their
coolant
fluids
release
Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) into the atmosphere.
Chemicals used in houses and gardens are also
sources of pollution as well as toxic waste.

OPEN BURNING
Burning of older existing plantations for replanting creates large amounts of soot particles.
These soot particles can be blown over long
distances and are mainly responsible for the haze
that often covers the sky above Malaysia.
These fires not only pollute the air but also
destroy the rich habitat of the flora and fauna.

Air Contaminant Control and the standards

Part V of the Clean Air Regulations, 1978,
stipulates the air contaminants which come under
control and their relevant standards.
The CAR controls the contaminants by dictating
the maximum allowable concentration of the
contaminants at any time.
These standards as they are commonly known are
stated in Regulation 24 30 and reproduced in
Table 3.1 3.3.
The discharge of dark smoke is also controlled and
the allowable limit is summarised in Table 3.4.

Control devices
The following items are commonly used as pollution
control devices by industry or transportation
devices.
They can either destroy contaminants or remove
them from an exhaust stream before it is emitted
into the atmosphere.

Particulate control
Mechanical collectors (
dust cyclones, multicyclones)
Electrostatic precipitators
Baghouses
Particulate scrubbers
Scrubbers

Baffle spray scrubber

Cyclonic spray scrubber
Ejector venturi scrubber
Mechanically aided scrubber
Spray tower

Scrubbers:
Air Scrubbers, Wet Scrubbers and Gas Scrubbers
Air scrubbers, wet scrubbers, and gas scrubbersare air
pollution control devices.
How do they function/work;
Use a high-energy liquid spray to remove aerosol and
gaseous pollutants from an air stream.
The gases are removed either by;
absorption or
chemical reaction.
In addition to fume and gas abatement, scrubbers may
also be used for process air cleansing and dust
collection.

Dry scrubbers are available, but they areoften more

costly than slurry method scrubbers.
Common application of scrubbers;
Air scrubbers, wet scrubbers, and gas scrubbersare
commonly used to help control emissions of sulfur into
the atmosphere.
This is of particular interest to those involved with
electric power generation via combustion of coal.
The gases that are emitted from the combustion process
are passed through tanks containing a lime substance
(often a limestone slurry) that can capture and
neutralize the sulfur dioxide.

Super scrubber

Vapor Phase Carbon - Air Scrubbers

NOx Removal
Scrubbing Solution

NOx control

Low NOx burners

Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR)
NOx scrubbers
Exhaust gas recirculation
Catalytic converter (also for VOC control)

VOC abatement

Adsorption systems, such as activated carbon

Flares
Thermal oxidizers
Catalytic oxidizers
Biofilters
Absorption (scrubbing)
Cryogenic condensers
Vapor recovery systems

Acid Gas/SO2 control

Wet scrubbers
Dry scrubbers
Flue gas desulfurization

Mercury control

Sorbent Injection Technology

Electro-Catalytic Oxidation (ECO)
K-Fuel

Dioxin and furan control

Miscellaneous associated equipment

Source capturing systems

Continuous emissions monitoring systems
(CEMS)

Air quality standards

In general, there are two types of air quality standards.
The first class of standards (such as the U.S.
National Ambient Air Quality Standards) set maximum
atmospheric concentrations for specific pollutants.
Environmental agencies enact regulations which are
intended to result in attainment of these target levels.
The second class (such as the North American
Air Quality Index) take the form of a scale with various
thresholds, which is used to communicate to the public the
relative risk of outdoor activity.
The scale may or may not distinguish between different
pollutants.

Smog in Cairo

Looking down from the Hollywood Hills, with Griffith Observatory on the hill
in the foreground, air pollution is visible in downtown Los Angeles on a late
afternoon.

In the 1960s, 70s, and 90s, the United States Congress

enacted a series of Clean Air Acts which significantly
strengthened regulation of air pollution.
Individual U.S. states, some European nations and eventually
the European Union followed these initiatives.
The Clean Air Act sets numerical limits on the concentrations
of a basic group of air pollutants and provide reporting and
enforcement mechanisms.
In 1999, the United States EPA replaced the Pollution
Standards Index (PSI) with the Air Quality Index (AQI) to
incorporate new PM2.5 and Ozone standards.

In an October 2006 letter to EPA, the agency's

independent scientific advisors warned that the ozone
smog standard needs to be substantially reduced and
that there is no scientific justification for retaining the
current, weaker standard.
The scientists unanimously recommended a smog threshold
of 60 to 70 ppb after they conducted an extensive review
of the evidence. [18]
The EPA has proposed, in June 2007, a new threshold of
75 ppb.
This falls short of the scientific recommendation, but is
an improvement over the current standard.

Polluting industries are lobbying to keep the current

(weaker) standards in place.
Environmentalists and public health advocates are
mobilizing to support compliance with the scientific
recommendations.
The National Ambient Air Quality Standards are pollution
thresholds which trigger mandatory remediation plans by
state and local governments, subject to enforcement by
the EPA.

WHY NEED WORLD REGULATION????

An outpouring of dust layered with man-made sulfates,
smog, industrial fumes, carbon grit, and nitrates is
crossing the Pacific Ocean on prevailing winds from
booming Asian economies in plumes so vast they alter the
climate.
Almost a third of the air over Los Angeles and
San Francisco can be traced directly to Asia.
With it comes up to three-quarters of the black carbon
particulate pollution that reaches the West Coast.
(TRANSBOUNDARY POLUTION)

Air pollution is usually concentrated in densely populated

metropolitan areas, especially in developing countries
where environmental regulations are generally relatively
lax.
However, even populated areas in developed countries
attain unhealthy levels of pollution.

Most Polluted World Cities by PM[20]

Particulate
matter,
g/m (2004)

City

169

Cairo, Egypt

150

Delhi, India

128

Kolkata, India (Calcutta)

125

Taiyuan, China

123

Chongqing, China

109

Kanpur, India

109

Lucknow, India

104

Jakarta, Indonesia

101

Shenyang, China

Counties in the United States that violate

National Ambient Air Quality Standards, as of June 2007.
Air pollution is a health concern even in developed countries like the U.S.

Total carbon dioxide emissions

(106 Tons of CO2 per year)
United States: 2,790
China: 2,680
Russia: 661
India: 583
Japan: 400
Germany: 356
Australia: 226
South Africa: 222
United Kingdom: 212
South Korea: 185
Per capita carbon dioxide emissions
(Tons of CO2 per year per capita)
Australia: 10
United States: 8.2
United Kingdom: 3.2
China: 1.8
India: 0.5

Chloro fluoro compounds (CFC, HCFC)

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) are
compounds containing chlorine, fluorine
and carbon only, contain no hydrogen.
Formerly used widely in industry, for
example as refrigerants, propellants, and
cleaning solvents.
Their use has been regularly prohibited
by the Montreal Protocol, because of
effects on the ozone layer (see
ozone depletion).
They are also a powerful greenhouse gas,
in terms of carbon dioxide equivalence
(over a time period of one hundred
years) between 5000 and 8100 per kg.

Hydrochlorofluorocarbons
(HCFCs) are of a class of
haloalkanes where not all
hydrogen has been replaced by
chlorine or fluorine.
They are used primarily as
chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)
substitutes, as the ozone
depleting effects are only about
10% of the CFCs.

Overview of haloalkanes
This table gives an overview of most haloalkanes in general use or commonly known. Listing includes bulk commodity products as well as laboratory chemicals.
Common/Trivial
name(s)

Systematic name

Code

Chem. formula

Halomethanes
Chloromethane

Methyl chloride

CH3Cl

Dichloromethane

Methylene chloride

CH2Cl2

Trichloromethane

Chloroform

CHCl3

Tetrachloromethane

Carbon tetrachloride, Freon 10

CFC-10

Tetrafluoromethane

Carbon tetrafluoride, Freon 14

PFC-14
(CFC-14 and HF-14 also used, although CF4
formally incorrect)

Trichlorofluoromethane

Freon-11, R-11

CFC-11

CCl3F

Dichlorodifluoromethane

Freon-12, R-12

CFC-12

CCl2F2

CFC-13

CClF3

Chlorotrifluoromethane

CCl4

Chlorodifluoromethane

R-22

HCFC-22

CHClF2

Trifluoromethane

Fluoroform

HFC-23

CHF3

Chlorofluoromethane

Freon 31

Difluoromethane

CH2ClF
HFC-32

CH2F2

HFC-41

CH3F

Fluoromethane

Methyl fluoride

Dibromomethane

Methylene bromide

CH2Br2

Tribromomethane

Bromoform

CHBr3
Halon 1011

CH2BrCl

Bromochlorodifluoromethane

BCF, Halon 1211 BCF, or Freon 12B1 Halon 1211

CBrClF2

Bromotrifluoromethane

BTM, Halon 1301 BTM, or Freon 13BI Halon 1301

CBrF3

Trifluoroiodomethane

Trifluoromethyl iodide

CF3I

Bromochloromethane

Freon 13T1

Haloethanes
1,1,1-Trichloroethane
Hexachloroethane

Methyl chloroform, tri

1,1,2-Trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoroethane

Trichlorotrifluoroethane

1,1,1-trichloro-2,2,2-trifluoroethane

CFC-110

Cl3C-CH3
C2Cl6

CFC-113

Cl2FC-CClF2

CFC-113a

Cl3C-CF3

1,2-Dichloro-1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethane

Dichlorotetrafluoroethane

CFC-114

ClF2C-CClF2

1-Chloro-1,1,2,2,2-pentafluoroethane

Chloropentafluoroethane

CFC-115

ClF2C-CF3

HFC-124

CHFClCF3

HFC-125

CHF2CF3

HFC-134

F2HC-CHF2

HFC-134a, Suva-134a

F3C-CH2F

1,1-Dichloro-1-fluoroethane

HCFC-141b

Cl2FC-CH3

1-Chloro-1,1-difluoroethane

HCFC-142b

ClF2C-CH3

Freon 150
Freon 150a
HFC-152a

ClH2C-CH2Cl
Cl2HC-CH3
F2HC-CH3

HFC-227ea, FE-227, FM-200

F3C-CHF-CF3

R610, PFB, CEA-410

F3C-CF2-CF2-CF3

2-Chloro-1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane
1,1,2,2,2-pentafluoroethane

Pentafluoroethane

1,1,2,2-Tetrafluoroethane
1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane

1,2-Dichloroethane
1,1-Dichloroethane
1,1-Difluoroethane
Longer haloalkanes, polymers

R-134a

Ethylene dichloride
Ethylidene dichloride

1,1,1,2,3,3,3-Heptafluoropropane
Decafluorobutane

perfluorobutane

Polychloroethene

polyvinyl chloride, PVC

-[CHCl-CH2]x-

Polytetrafluoroethene

Polytetrafluoroethylene,
PTFE, Teflon

-[CF2-CF2]x-

Worldwide air pollution is responsible for large

numbers of deaths and cases of respiratory disease.
While major stationary sources are often identified
with air pollution, the greatest source of emissions is
actually mobile sources, mainly automobiles.
Gases such as carbon dioxide, which contribute to
global warming, have recently gained recognition as
pollutants by climate scientists, while they also
recognize that carbon dioxide is essential for plant
life through photosynthesis.