Orthorectification

using
ERDAS IMAGINE

rthorectification Basic Concepts

Geometric distortions are present in satellite images caused

by satellite platform and its elliptic movement around the
earth, due to the imaging sensor (parameters like focal
length, instantaneous field of view, panoramic view, and the
oblique viewing system in some cases), and due to the earth
rotation, curvature, and topographic relief etc. Therefore, it is
essential to remove all types of geometric distortions in RS
imagery before using it for feature/ information extraction.

Orthorectification Definition
Orthorectification is the geometric transformation of an image
in which image displacements due to sensor orientation and
terrain are corrected to the projection of a map coordinate
system. The accuracy of an orthorectified image and its
assigned georeferencing information is dependent on DEM
and the quality of the sensor model. Orthorectification is the
process

of

reducing

geometric

errors

inherent

within

photography and imagery. The variables contributing to

geometric errors include, but are not limited to:
camera and sensor orientation
systematic error associated with the camera or
sensor
topographic relief displacement
Earth curvature

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It is a form of rectification that corrects for terrain
displacement and can be used if there is a DEM of the study
area. It is based on collinearity equations, which can be
derived by using 3D GCPs.
Relief displacement is corrected by taking each pixel of a
DEM and finding the equivalent position in the satellite or
aerial image. A brightness value is determined for this
location based on resampling of the surrounding pixels. The
brightness value, elevation, and exterior orientation
information are used to calculate the equivalent location in
the ortho image file.
Note: In relatively flat areas, orthorectification is not
necessary, but in mountainous areas (or on aerial
photographs of buildings), where a high degree of
accuracy is required, orthorectification is recommended

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The input data required for orthorectification process is the
original image, an appropriate sensor model, GCPs, and a
DTM or DEM.
The orthorectification process takes the raw digital imagery
and applies a DEM and triangulation results to create an
orthorectified image. Once an orthorectified image is created,
each pixel within the image possesses geometric reliability.
Thus, measurements taken off an orthorectified image
represent the corresponding measurements as if they were
taken on the Earths surface.

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Imagery

DEM

Orthorectified Imagery

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In
contrast
to
conventional
rectification
techniques,
orthorectification relies on the digital elevation data, unless the
terrain is flat. Various sources of elevation data exist, such as
the USGS DEM and a DEM automatically created from stereo
image pairs.
For different image data, different accuracy levels of DEMs are
required to limit the uncertainty-related errors within a
controlled limit. While the near-vertical viewing SPOT scene
can use very coarse DEMs, images with large incidence angles
need better elevation data such as USGS level-1 DEMs. For
aerial photographs with a scale larger than 1:60000, elevation
data accurate to 1 meter is recommended. The 1-meter
accuracy reflects the accuracy of the Z coordinates in the
DEM, not the DEM resolution or posting.

delines for DEM Selection for Ortho Resamplin

The DEM should be large enough that the entire area to be
orthorectified is covered by the extent of the DEM (excluding
background). This eliminates possible conflicts between zero
background value and zero data value.
If the DEM is too small to completely cover the
orthorectification area and has zero background values and
zero data values, neither of the methods above is completely
satisfactory. One way to approach the problem would be to
locate and change zero data values to a very small number
(0.001 for Float or Double type data, or 1 for 8-bit or16-bit
data) and then recompute statistics ignoring zeros. This
eliminates the effects of the background while having minimal
effect on sea-level elevations.

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Resampling methods used are nearest neighbor, bilinear
interpolation, and cubic convolution. Generally, when the cell
sizes of ortho image pixels are selected, they should be similar
or larger than the cell sizes of the original image. For example,
if the image was scanned 9K 9K, one pixel would represent
0.025 mm on the image. Assuming that the SI of this photo is
1:40000, then the cell size on the ground is about 1 m. For the
orthoimage, it is appropriate to choose a pixel spacing of 1 m
or larger. Choosing a smaller pixel size oversamples the
original image.
For SPOT Pan images, a cell size of 10 meters is appropriate.
Any further enlargement from the original scene to the ortho
photo does not improve the image detail. For IRS-1C images, a
cell size of 6 meters is appropriate.

In ERDAS IMAGINE, orthorectification can be done by two

methods;
1. through Image Geometric Correction
module in Data Preparation tool

2. through LPS tool

Note: We will use the first method in our exercise.

lecting the correct Resampling Method

Bilinear Interpolation:
Use Bilinear interpolation when;
the DEM cell size is much greater than the image cell size
(for example, a 30-meter DEM with 1-meter air photo)
the DEM covers the entire output area of the orthorectified
image

Nearest Neighbor:
Use Nearest Neighbor when;

the DEM covers less than the output area of the

orthorectified image
the DEM cell size is approximately the same as the image
cell size (for example, a 30-meter DEM with 10-meter
Spot)

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Cubic Convolution:
Use Cubic Convolution when;
the DEM cell size is much greater than the image cell
size (cubic convolution is very similar to bilinear
interpolation)
the DEM covers the entire output area of the
orthorectified
image
Bicubic
Spline Interpolation:
Use Bicubic Spline Interpolation when;
the DEM cell size is much greater than the image cell size
-at least 5x5
the DEM covers the entire output area of the orthorectified
image

Further Reading
ERDAS. (2009) "ERDAS Field Guide", ERDAS, Inc., USA
Willneff, J. and Poon, J. (2006) "Georeferencing from
Orthorectified and Non-Orthorectified High-Resolution
Satellite Imagery". The 13th Australasian Remote
Sensing and Photogrammetry Conference, 20 24
November, National Convention Centre, Canberra,
Australia
Parcharidis, I., Foumelis, M., Papageorgiou, E., Segou, M.
and Sakkas, V. (2005) "Ortho-rectification and
Assessment of QuickBird Imagery using D-GPS
Measurements over Paros Urban Area". International
Archives of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and
Spatial Information Sciences, Vol. XXXVI, PART 8/W27

Proceed to Lab
Exercise..