Chapter 13

How Cells Obtain

Energy from Food

From Chapter 3 (Energy)

Sun is source of all energy
Through photosynthesis/dark reactions, plants convert
solar energy chemical energy + sugars
Other organisms consume sugars, convert sugars to
chemical energy
Chemical bond energy in food
Catabolism of sugars (glucose) is most direct pathway
to chemical energy

Sugar Chemical Energy

Use steps to harvest all the energy and not waste it as heat
Aerobic metabolism yields the most energy (O2 needed)
Metabolites more oxidized than glucose
Enzymes catalyze reactions
Oxidation reactions must be coupled with reduction reactions
The reduced molecules are the carriers (NADH and NADPH)

Sugar Chemical Energy

Overall products of sugar catabolism:
CO2
H2O
Reduced (activated) carriers
NADH
NADPH
In mitochondria, reduced carriers now oxidized
(lose electrons)
Electrons released to electron transport system
Allow ATP synthesis in mitochondria

Stage 1 - Digestion
In eukaryotes (mammals):
Digestion
HCl -- stomach
Enzymes mouth, stomach, small intestine
Enzymes in the lysosome for internal cellular digestion

Absorption through specialized cells in small intestine

bloodstream bodys cells
Metabolism begins in cell cytosol

Location of
Macromolecules
in Cell

Stage 2 - Glycolysis
Glycolysis starts in the cytoplasm
Glucose (6C) 2 pyruvate (3C each)
Other sugars can be used but must convert to
intermediates of glycolysis

2 carrier molecules generated per pyruvate

2 molecules ATP (carries energy)
2 reduced NADH (carries electrons)

Pyruvate molecules move to the mitochondria

Stage 3 Krebs Cycle/ETC

In the mitochondria pyruvate broken down to CO2 and the
remaining 2 Cs (acetyl group) are added to Coenzyme A
Also can get Acetyl CoA from fats

Each acetyl CoA transfers the 2Cs to citric acid cycle

where carrier molecules are generated
GTP carries energy
NADH/FADH2 carry electrons

Electrons electron transport chain

Release energy used for oxidative phosphorylation
O2 needed for successful reaction ADP + Pi ATP
ATP moved to the cytosol for use

Glycolysis
10 reactions, each catalyzed by an enzyme
Products or intermediates become more oxidized
through pathway
Doesnt react with oxygen atoms; rather lose electrons to
carriers
2 NADH generated from catabolism 1 glucose

Some steps are not spontaneous (+DG)

Coupled with subsequent spontaneous reactions

Glycolysis
Uses 2 ATP to catabolize glucose
In coupled reactions hydrolysis of ATP allows nonspontaneous reactions to proceed
Phosphates from ATP added to intermediates
Form high energy phosphate bonds
Now intermediates have higher energy

In later steps, generates 4 ATP

When phosphates cleaved from intermediates

Overall glycolysis yields (net gain) 2 ATP

Overall Process

Glycolysis

Glycolysis

Glycolysis

Glycolysis

Glycolysis

Net Result of Glycolysis

Glucose + 2 ATP 2 NADH + 4 ATP + 2 pyruvate
Net energy outcome 2 NADH and 2 ATP

What to Know About Glycolysis

10 enzymes / 5 reaction types
Kinases add a phosphate group to intermediates,
phosphate transfer
Isomerases rearranges the atoms in the intermediates
Dehydrogenase causes a redox reaction, electron ends
up on FADH2 or NADH
Dehydrations removal of H2O
Cleavage reaction split glucose to 2 3-C molecules

Net outcome of glycolysis

Steps and Reactions

Step 1 kinase, phosphate transfer

Step 2 isomerase, rearrange atoms
Step 3 kinase, phosphate transfer
Step 4 cleavage to 2 3-C molecules
Step 5 isomerase, rearrange atoms
Step 6 dehydrogenase, make NADH
Step 7 kinase, phosphate transfer
Step 8 isomerase, rearrange atoms
Step 9 removal of H2O
Step 10 kinase, phosphate transfer

Enzymatic Coupling
Steps 6 and 7 are coupled to take advantage of the highenergy phosphate intermediate to create ATP
Step 6: glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate has a inorganic
phosphate group added to create 3-phosphoglycerate,
substrate for Step 7 and generates NADH
Step 7: 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate releases the energy in
the phosphate bond to create 1 ATP for each 1,3bisphosphoglycerate

Overall Results
Enzyme-mediated energy storage through coupled reactions to
create high energy bonds
Intermediate is higher in energy than before
Has second high energy phosphate bond
NADH is generated and will also increase energy when it
participates in oxidative phosphorylation

High Energy Bonds

Fermentation
Can generate ATP in absence
of O2 anaerobic
Anaerobic organisms create
ATP through glycolysis
Pyruvate converted to
ethanol and CO2 (yeast) or
lactate (muscle)

Process called fermentation

Stage 3
Pyruvate is moved to the mitochondria
In the presence of O2 it is converted to 1 molecule of CO2 and
the remaining 2 Cs are attached to Coenzyme A, creating
Acetyl CoA using pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
Also generates a molecule of NADH

Fatty Acids as Energy Source

Fatty acids can be linked to
CoA (fatty acyl CoA) and
therefore yield acetyl CoA
that can enter the citric acid
cycle
Generates NADH and
FADH2 for each acetylCoA
Amino acids also can be
made to acetylCoA and
used in the Krebs cycle

Energy Produced in Mitochondria

Fats and sugars are major sources of energy
Acetyl CoA is made in the mitochondria
No surprise to learn that the energy is also harvested
in the mitochondria
In bacteria glycolysis and citric acid cycle in cytosol

Citric Acid Cycle

2/3 of oxidation of C compounds in the average cell
End product is CO2 (waste) and NADH high energy
molecules (used later)
Requires O2 to regenerate NAD+ but not actually used in
reactions
Link the acetyl group of Acetyl CoA to 4 C molecule,
oxaloacetate, to make 6 C citrate
By end of cycle, all the C of glucose is released as CO2,
remembering that 1 CO2 was released in previous stage

Citric Acid Cycle

(TCA Cycle, Krebs Cycle)

***

Activated Carriers
Two new energy molecules are introduced
FADH2 (flavin adenine dinucleotide)
High energy electrons and H
GTP (ribonucleotide)
Similar to ATP and will give up PO4 to ADP to make ATP

Requires O2 but as H2O (red circle)

Some of the steps products can leave mitochondria and used in the
cytosol to make precursors like amino acids

Steps and Reactions

Step 1 add acetyl CoA to oxaloacetate, citrate (6 C)
Step 2 isomerase, rearrange atoms (6 C)
Step 3 dehydrogenase, make NADH, lose CO2 (5 C)
Step 4 dehydrogenase, make NADH, lose CO2, add CoA
back to molecule (4 C)
Step 5 generate GTP, remove CoA (4 C)
Step 6 dehydrogenase, make FADH2, rearrange atoms (4 C)
Step 7 add H2O (4 C)
Step 8 dehydrogenase, make NADH, regenerates
oxaloacetate (4 C), why a cycle

Electron-Transport Chain
Final step in energy generation
most energy released here
e- of NADH and FADH2 move through
the chain, moving to lower energy
level
Occurs in the inner membrane of the
mitochondria
Specialized molecules accept and
donate e- as they move down chain
Create an electrochemical gradient
As e- move down chain, H+ move across
the membrane, altering the concentration
of H+ on either side = gradient
Gradient used to generate ATP (Chapter
14)

Oxidative Phosphorylation
e- eventually end up on O2 and with the H+ form H2O e- is at
least energy level
Complete oxidation of glucose produces 6 CO2, H2O and ~30 ATP
Glycolysis alone produces just 2 ATP
In bacteria plasma membrane
In eukaryotes in the inner mitochondrial membrane

Storing and Using Food

Need to generate ATP constantly, can because store food
within our cells
Fatty acids in fat cells, globules in cells
Holds more energy gram for gram than sugar
Glucose stored as glycogen, a branched polysaccharide in
granules in animal cell cytoplasm
Used when not enough glucose in bloodstream
Released as glucose 1-phosphate and can enter
glycolysis

Sugar Storage in Plants and Mammals

Plants
Have chloroplasts as well as mitochondria
Mitochondria will generate ATP from the sugars made
during photosynthesis
Especially in cells without chloroplasts such as roots or
when without sunlight

Excess sugars can be converted to fats or starch, the

equivalent to glycogen in animals, different branching
pattern
Stored in the chloroplast

Chloroplasts and Mitochondria

Chloroplasts make ATP and NADPH that cannot leave
ATP and NADPH converted to sugar that can leave and be
used in glycolysis and ATP generation in the mitochondria
and into other building blocks

Biosynthetic Pathways Begin with Glycolysis or TCA Cycle

Intermediates can be
used by other
enzymes as the
starting point in
making amino acids,
nucleotides, lipids
and other small
organic compounds
Black arrows one
enzyme reaction
Red arrows multi
step reactions

Pathway Interactions
Some molecule can be
substrate in many
different pathways
Elaborate network of
control mechanisms

Bringing It All Together

Metabolism

High ATP Levels

Low ATP Levels

Anabolism

Catabolism

Glycogen
Fats
Proteins

Glycogen
Fats
Proteins