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FLAMES
OVERVIEW
Applications:
Heating appliances
Bunsen burners
Burner for glass product manufacturing
Importance of studying laminar premixed flames:
Some burners use this type of flames as shown by
examples above
Prerequisite to the study of turbulent premixed
flames. Both have the same physical processes
and many turbulent flame theories are based on
underlying laminar flame structure.
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION
Physical characteristics
Figure 8.2 shows typical flame temperature profile,
mole fraction of reactants,R, and volumetric heat
&
Q
release, .
Velocity of reactants entering the flame, u = flame
propagation velocity, SL
Products heated product density (b) < reactant
density (u). Continuity requires that burned gas
velicity, b >= unburned gas vel., u
u u A = b b A
(8.1)
Solution
From Fig. 8.7, we see that the local angle, , which
the flame sheet makes with a vertical plane is (Eqn.
8.2)
= arc sin (SL/u), where, from Fig. 8.6,
u (mm/s) = 800 + (1200 800)/20 x (mm) (known).
u (mm/s) = 800 + 20x.
So,
= arc sin (400/(800 + 20x (mm))
and has values ranging from 30o at x = 0 to19.5o at x
= 20 mm, as shown in the top part of Fig. 8.6.
dz
tan
dx
2
u
x S
2
L
1/ 2
2
L
dz A Bx
1
dx
SL
becomes
1/ 2
dx
40
-10 ln[(x2+80x+1200)1/2+(x+40)]
-203+10 ln(203+40)
The flame position z(x) is plotted in upper half of
Fig. 8.6.
SIMPLIFIED ANALYSIS
Turns (2000) proposes simplified laminar flame
speed and thickness on one-dimensional flame.
Assumptions used:
One-dimensional, constant-area, steady flow.
One-dimensional flat flame is shown in Figure 8.5.
Kinetic and potential energies, viscous shear work,
and thermal radiation are all neglected.
The small pressure difference across the flame is
neglected; thus, pressure is constant.
kis unity,
D, i.e.,
Le
D C p D
k
u C p
(8.20)
&F
m
S L 2 1
u
and
2 u
&
1
m
or (8.21) 2
SL
&
m
n Tu
/ u
&F
F . Tb n P n1Tu exp( E A /( RuTb ) (8.28)
m
2R T
0.375
Tb
n/2
u b
EA
n / 2
exp
P
2
R
T
u b
(8.30)
2,000
2,300
1,700
SL/SL,A
3.64
0.46
/A
0.65
1.95
Case A: reference
Case C: Tb changes due to heat transfer or
changing equivalent ratio, either lean or rich.
Case B: Tu changes due to preheating fuel
Pressure (P)
From Eq. 8.29, if, again, n 2, SL f (P).
Experimental measurements generally show a
negative dependence of pressure. Andrews and
Bradley [19] found that
SL (cm/s) = 43[P (atm)]-0.5
(8.32)
fits their data for P > 5 atm for methane-air flames
(Fig. 8.14).
Equivalent Ratio ( )
Except for very rich mixtures, the primary effect of
on SL for similar fuels is a result of how this
parameter affects flame temperatures; thus, we
would expect S L,max at a slightly rich mixture and
fall off on either side as shown in Fig. 8.15 for
behaviour of methane.
Flame thickness () shows the inverse trend,
having a minimum near stoichiometric (Fig. 8.16).
Fuel Type
Fig. 8.17 shows SL for C1-C6 paraffins (single
bonds), olefins (double bonds), and acetylenes
(triple bonds). Also shown is H2. SL of C3H8 is used
as a reference.
Roughly speaking the C3-C6 hydrocarbons all
follow the same trend as a function of flame
temperature. C2H4 and C2H2 SL > the C3-C6 group,
while CH4SL lies somewhat below.
Fuel
SL (cm/s)
CH4
40
C2H2
136
C2H4
67
C2H6
43
C3H8
44
H2
210
P
SL = SL,ref Tu
(1 2.1Ydil) (8.33)
Tu , ref
for Tu 350 K.
P ref
BM (cm/s)
B2 (cm/s)
Methanol
1.11
36.92
-140.51
Propane
1.08
34.22
-138.65
26.32
-84.72
RMFD-303 1.13
27.58
-78.54
Example 8.3
Compare the laminar flame speeds of gasoline-air
mixtures with = 0.8 for the following three cases:
i. At ref conditions of T = 298 K and P = 1 atm
ii. At conditions typical of a spark-ignition engine
operating at wide-open throttle: T = 685 K and P
= 18.38 atm.
iii. Same as condition ii above, but with 15 percent
(by mass) exhaust-gas recirculation
Solution
RMFD-303 research fuel has a controlled
composition simulating typical gasolines. The
flame speed at 298 K and 1 atm is given by
SL,ref = BM + B2( - M)2
From Table 8.3,
BM = 27.58 cm/s, B2 = -78.38cm/s, M = 1. 13.
SL,ref = 27.58 - 78.34(6.8 - 1.13)2 = 19.05 cm/s
To find the flame speed at Tu and P other than the
reference state, we employ Eqn. 8.33
SL(Tu, P) = SL,ref
Tu
P
T
P
u
,
ref
ref
where
= 2.18-0.8(-1) = 2.34
= -0.16+0.22(-1) = - 0.204
Thus,
SL(685 K, 18.38 atm) =
19.05 (685/298)2.34(18.38/1)-0.204 =73.8cm/s
With dilution by exhaust-gas recirculation, the
flame speed is reduced by factor (1-2.1 Ydil):
SL(685 K, 18.38 atm, 15%EGR) =
73.8cm/s[1-2.1(0.15)]= 50.6 cm/s
QUENCHING, FLAMMABILITY,
AND IGNITION
Previously steady propagation of premixed
laminar flames
Now transient process: quenching and ignition.
Attention to quenching distance, flammability
limits, and minimum ignition energies with heat
losses controlling the phenomena.
(8.34)
Q& m&F hc
(8.35)
where m
&F is volumetric mass rate of fuel,
hc is heat of combustion
Thickness of the slab of gas analysed = .
Qcond kA
in gas wall
dx
(8.36)
(8.37)
where b = 2, assuming a linear distribution of T
from the centerline plane at Tb to the wall at Tw.
In general b > 2.
Quenching occurs from Tb to Tw.
Tb Tw
&F hc )( dL)) k (2 L)
(m
d /b
or
2kb Tb Tw
2
d
m&F hc
(8.38a)
(8.38b)
d = 2b /SL
(8.39a)
Relating Eqn 8.21 (about ), Eqn 8.39a becomes
d = 2b
Because b 2, value d is always > . Values of d for fuels
are shown Table 8.4.
Quenching distance, d
min
max
Stoich-mass For =1
air-fuel ratio
Absolute
min, mm
C2H2
0.19
13.3
2.3
CO
0.34
6.76
2.46
C10H22
0.36
3.92
15.0
2.1
C2H6
0.50
2.72
16.0
2.3
1.8
C2H4
0.41
> 6.1
14.8
1.3
H2
0.14
2.54
34.5
0.64
0.61
CH4
0.46
1.64
17.2
2.5
2.0
CH3OH
0.48
4.08
6.46
1.8
1.5
C8H18
0.51
4.25
15.1
CH
0.51
2.83
15.6
2.0
1.8
Fuel
Absolute
minimum (10-5 J)
C2H2
CO
C10H22
C2H6
42
24
C2H4
9.6
H2
2.0
1.8
CH4
33
29
CH3OH
21.5
14
C8H18
C3H8
30.5
26
Example 8.4.
Consider the design of a laminar-flow, adiabatic,
flat-flame burner consisting of a square
arrangement of thin-walled tubes as illustrated in
the sketch below.
Fuel-air mixture flows through both the tubes and
the interstices between the tubes.
It is desired operate the burner with a
stoichiometric methane-air mixture exiting the
tubes at 300 K and 5 atm
Solution
To establish a flat flame, the mean flow velocity must equal
the laminar flame at the design temperature and pressure.
From Fig. 8.14,
SL (300K, 5atm) = 43/P (atm) = 43/5 = 19.2cm/s.
The mass flux, , m
& is
m
= uu = uSL
& = m&/ A
Assuming an ideal-gas mixture, where
MWmix = CH4MWCH4 + (1 - CH4)MWair
= 0.095(16.04) + 0.905(28.85)
d2 = d1 2 S L ,1 d1 P1 S L ,1
1 S L ,2
P2 S L ,2
51.5
6
15.89.10
2. Flammability Limits
A flame will propagate only within a range of
mixture the so-called lower and upper limits of
flammability. The limit is the leanest mixture ( <
1), while the upper limit represents the richest
mixture ( > 1). = (A/F)stoich /(A/F)actual by mass or
by mole
Flammability limits are frequently quoted as %fuel
by volume in the mixture, or as a % of the
stoichiometric fuel requirement, i.e., ( x 100%).
Table 8.4 shows flammability limits of some fuels
Example 8.5.
A full C3H8 cylinder from a camp stove leaks its
contents of 1.02 lb (0.464 kg) in 12' x 14' x 8' (3.66
m x 4.27 m x 2.44 m) room at 20oC and 1 atm.
After a long time fuel gas and room air are well
mixed. Is the mixture in the room flammable?
Solution
From Table 8.4, we see that C3H8-air mixtures are
flammable for 0.51 < < 2.83. Our problem, thus,
is to determine of the mixture filling the room.
Partial pressure of C3H8 by assuming ideal-gas
behaviour
PF
mF Ru / MWF T
Vroom
0.464(8315/44.094)(20 273)
3.66(4.27)(2.44)
= 672.3 Pa
Propane mole fraction =
F = PF/P = 672.3/101,325 = 0.00664
and
air = 1 - F = 0.99336
The air-fuel ratio of the mixture in the room is
(A/F)act = air MWair
0.99336 (28.85)
97.88
fuel MW fuel 0.00664 (44.094)
Comment
Although our calculations show that in the fully
mixed state the mixture is not flammable, it is quite
possible that, during the transient leaking process,
a flammable mixture can exist somewhere within
the room.
C3H8 is heavier than air and would tend to
accumulate near the floor until it is mixed by bulk
motion and molecular diffusion.
In environments employing flammable gases,
monitors should be located at both low and high
positions to detect leakage of heavy and light
fuels, respectively.
3. Ignition
Most of ignition uses electrical spark (pemantik
listrik). Another means is using pilot ignition (flame
from very low-flow fuel).
Simplified Ignition Analysis
Consider Williams second criterion, applied to a
spherical volume of gas, which represents the
incipient propagating flame created by a point spark.
Using the criterion:
Find a critical gas-volume radius, Rcrit, below which
flame will not propagate
Find minimum ignition energy, Eign, to heat critical
gas volume from initial state to flame temperature
(Tu to Tb).
(8.40)
Q&V Q&conduction
(propagation)
(8.41)
3
m&F hc 4 R
crit
/ 3 k 4 R
2
crit
dT
dr
Rcrit
dT
b
u
(8.42)
dr Rcrit
Rcrit
3k Tb Tu
R(8.43)
crit
m&F hc
(8.44)
R 6
6/2
crit
SL
crit p
c p Tb Tu
(8.47)
Eign 61,6 P
Tb S L
Rb
where Rb = Ru/MWb and Ru = gas constant
Eign (mJ)
n-heptane
298
373
14.5
6.7
444
298
3.2
27.0
373
444
11.0
4.8
243
253
45.0
14.5
Iso-octane
n-pentane
Fuel
Eign (mJ)
n-heptane
298
373
7.8
4.2
444
233
2.3
11.7
243
253
9.7
8.4
298
331
5.5
4.2
356
373
3.6
3.5
477
1.4
propane
References:
Turns, Stephen R., An Introduction to
Combustion, Concepts and Applications , 2nd
edition, McGrawHill, 2000