POWER SYSTEM STABILITY

Contents
2

Power System Stability Overview

Power System Stability: A Proposed Definition
Need of Stability Classification
Power System Stability Classification

Rotor Angle Stability

Voltage Stability
Frequency Stability

Rotor Angle Stability vs. Voltage Stability

References

Power System Stability Overview

3

Power system is defined as a network of one or more

generating units, loads and power transmission lines
including the associated equipments connected to it.

The stability of a power system is its ability to develop

restoring forces equal to or greater than the disturbing
forces to maintain the state of equilibrium.

Power system stability problem gets more pronounced

in case of interconnection of large power networks.

Power System Stability: A Proposed

Definition
4

Power system stability is the ability of an electric

power
system, for a given initial operating condition, to
regain a
state of operating equilibrium after being subjected
to a
physical disturbance, with most system variables
bounded
so that practically the entire system remains intact.

Need of Stability
Classification

Stability analysis is easier. Also it leads to

proper and effective understanding of
different power system instabilities.

Key factors that leads to instability can be

easily identified.

Methods can be devised for improving

power system stability.

Power System Stability Classification

6

Rotor angle stability.

Voltage stability.

Small disturbance angle stability.

Transient stability.

Small disturbance voltage stability.

Large disturbance voltage stability.

Frequency stability.

Short term frequency stability.

Long term frequency stability.

Stability Classification at a Glance

7

Rotor Angle Stability

8

Rotor angle stability refers to the ability of

synchronous machines of an interconnected
power system to remain in synchronism
after being subjected to a disturbance.

Rotor angle instability occurs due to angular

swings of some generators leading to their
loss of synchronism with other generators.

Rotor Angle Stability

(contd.)

Depends on the ability to maintain/restore

equilibrium between electromagnetic torque and
mechanical torque of each synchronous machine.

At equilibrium, Input mechanical torque equals

output electromagnetic torque of each generator.
In case of any disturbance the above equality
doesnt hold leading to acceleration/ deceleration
of rotors of machines.

Rotor Angle Stability

10

Rotor Angle Stability Classification:

Small Disturbance Rotor Angle Stability:

It

is the ability of the power system to maintain

synchronism under small disturbances.
Disturbances are considered to be sufficiently small such
that the linearization of system equations is permissible
for purposes of analysis.
The time frame of interest in small-disturbance stability
studies is of the order of 10 to 20 seconds following a
disturbance.

Rotor Angle Stability

11

Rotor Angle Stability Classification

Large Disturbance Rotor Angle Stability:

It

is the ability of the power system to maintain

synchronism under a severe disturbance, such as a
short circuit on a transmission line.
Disturbances are large so that the linearization of system
equations is not permissible for purposes of analysis.
The time frame of interest in small-disturbance stability
studies is of the order of 3 to 5 seconds following a
disturbance.

Voltage Stability
12

Voltage stability refers to the ability of a power system

to maintain steady voltages at all buses in the system
after being subjected to a disturbance from a given
initial operating condition.

A system is voltage instable if for atleast one bus in the

system, the voltage magnitude decreases as reactive
power injection is increased.

Voltage instability results in progressive fall or rise of

voltages of some buses.

Voltage Stability
13

Large scale effect of voltage instability leads to Voltage

collapse. It is a process by which the sequence of
events accompanying voltage instability leads to a
blackout or abnormally low voltages in a significant part
of the power system.

The driving force for voltage instability is usually the

loads.

Voltage stability problems is also experienced at

terminals of HVDC links connected to weak ac systems.

Voltage Stability
14

Voltage Stability Classification

Small Disturbance Voltage Stability:

Small-disturbance

voltage stability refers to the

systems ability to maintain steady voltages when
subjected to small disturbances such as incremental
changes in system load.

combination of both linear and non-linear

techniques are used for analysis.

Voltage Stability
15

Voltage Stability Classification

Large Disturbance Voltage Stability:

Large-disturbance

voltage stability refers to the

systems ability to maintain steady voltages
following large disturbances such as system faults,
loss of generation, or circuit contingencies.

The

study period of interest may extend from a few

seconds to tens of minutes.

Frequency Stability
16

Frequency stability refers to the ability of a power

system to maintain steady frequency following a
severe system upset resulting in a significant
imbalance between generation and load.

Frequency instability leads to tripping of generating

units and/or loads.

Frequency stability may be a short-term

phenomenon or a long-term phenomenon.

17

Rotor Angle Stability vs. Voltage

Stability

Rotor angle stability is basically a

generator stability while voltage stability
means load stability.

Rotor angle stability is mainly interlinked

to real power transfer whereas voltage
stability is mainly related to reactive
power transfer.

A PRESENTATION ON
REACTIVE POWER
COMPENSATION
&
VOLTAGE COLLAPSE

Control of voltage and reactive power should

satisfy the following
1.Voltages at the terminals of all equipment in
the system are within acceptable limits
2. System stability is enhanced to maximize
utilization of the transmission system. Voltage
and reactive power control have a significant
impact on system stability.
3. The reactive power flow is minimized so as to
reduce RI2 and XI2 losses to a practical
minimum. This ensures that the transmission
system operates efficiently.

Since reactive power cannot be

transmitted
over
long
distances,
voltage control has to be effected by
using
special
devices
dispersed
throughout the system.
The proper selection and coordination
of equipment for controlling reactive
power and voltage are among the
major challenges .

INTRODUCTION
Reactive power (VAR) compensation is defined as the
management of reactive power to improve the performance
of ac systems. There are two aspects:a) Load Compensation The main objectives are to :i) increase the power factor of the system
ii) to balance the real power drawn from the system
iii) compensate voltage regulation
iv) to eliminate current harmonics.
b) Voltage Support The main purpose is to decrease the
voltage fluctuation at a given terminal of transmission line.
Therefore the VAR compensation improves the stability of ac
system by increasing the maximum active power that can be
transmitted.

WHAT IS REACTIVE POWER ?

Power is referred as the product of voltage and current

i.e. power = V x I
The portion of electricity that establishes and sustains the
electric and magnetic fields of alternating-current
equipment. Reactive power must be supplied to most types
of magnetic equipment, such as motors and transformers.
In an ac transmission, when the voltage and current
go up and down at the same time, only real power is
transmitted and when there is a time shift between
voltage and current both active and reactive power
are transmitted.

WHY DO WE NEED REACTIVE POWER?

In resistive loads the current produces the heat

energy which produces the desired output but incase
of inductive loads the current creates the magnetic
field which further produces the desired work.
Therefore reactive power is the non working power
caused by the magnetic current to operate and
sustain magnetism in the device .
Reactive power (vars) is required to maintain the
voltage to deliver active power (watts)through
transmission lines. When there is not enough reactive
power the voltage sags down and it is not possible to
deliver the required power to load through the lines.

Need for Reactive Power Compensation

Reactive power generated by the ac power source

is stored in a capacitor or a reactor during a
quarter of a cycle and in the next quarter of the
cycle it is sent back to the power source. Therefore
the reactive power oscillates between the ac
source and the capacitor or reactor at a frequency
equals to two times the rated value (50 or 60 Hz).
So to avoid the circulation between the load and
source it needs to be compensated .
Also to regulate the power factor of the system
and maintain the voltage stability we need to
compensate reactive power .

OBJECTIVES OF LOAD
COMPENSATION

p.f. Correction.
Voltage regulation improvement.
Balancing of load

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SPECIFICATIONS OF LOAD
COMPENSATION

Maximum and continuous reactive power requirement in

terms of absorbing as well as generation.
Overload rating and duration.
Rated voltage and limits of voltage between which the
reactive power rating must not be exceeded.
Frequency and its variation.
Accuracy of voltage regulation requirement.
Special control requirement.
Maximum harmonic distortion with compensation in series.
Emergency procedure and precautions.
Response time of the compensator for a specified
disturbance.
Reliability and redundancy of components.

IDEAL COMPENSATOR

An ideal compensator is a device that can be connected at or near a supply

point and in parallel with the load. The main functions of an ideal compensator
are instantaneous p.f. correction to unity, elimination or reduction of the
voltage regulation, and phase balance of the load currents and voltages. In
performing these interdependent functions, it will consume zero power.

Thecharacteristicsof an ideal compensator are to:

provide a controllable and variable amount of reactive power without

any delay according to the requirements of the load,

maintain a constant-voltage characteristic at its terminals, and

should operate independently in the three phases

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Methods of Reactive Power

Compensation

Shunt compensation
Series compensation
Synchronous condensers
Static VAR compensators
Static compensators

Shunt compensation

The device that is connected in parallel with the

transmission line is called the shunt compensator. A
shunt compensator is always connected in the
middle of the transmission line. It can be provided by
either a current source, voltage source or a capacitor.
An ideal shunt compensator provides the reactive
power to the system.
Shunt-connected reactors are used to reduce the line
over-voltages by consuming the reactive power,
while shunt-connected capacitors are used to
maintain the voltage levels by compensating the
reactive power to transmission line.

Transmission line with shunt compensation

Series compensation

When a device is connected in series with the

transmission line it is called a series compensator. A
series compensator can be connected anywhere in
the line.
There are two modes of operation capacitive mode
of operation and inductive mode of operation.
A simplified model of a transmission system with
series compensation is shown in Figure .The voltage
magnitudes of the two buses are assumed equal as
V, and the phase angle between them is .

Transmission line with series compensation

Static VAR compensators

Astatic VAR compensator(orSVC) is anelectrical device

for
providing
reactive
poweron
transmissionnetworks.The term "static" refers to the fact
that the SVC has nomoving parts(other thancircuit
breakersand disconnects, which do not move under normal
SVC operation).

The SVC is an automated impedance matching device,

designed to bring the system closer to unitypower factor. If
the power system's reactive load iscapacitive(leading), the
SVC will use reactors (usually in the form ofthyristorControlled Reactors) to consumevarsfrom the system,
lowering the system voltage.

Underinductive(lagging) conditions, the capacitor banks

are automatically switched in, thus providing a higher
system voltage.

ADVANTAGES

a)

b)
c)
d)

Static VAR compensation is not done at line

voltage; a bank of transformers steps the
transmission voltage (for example, 230 kV)
down to a much lower level (for example, 9.5
kV).This reduces the size and number of
components.
They are more reliable .
Faster in operation .
Smoother control and more flexibility can be
provided with the help of thyristors.

Static Compensator

The devices use synchronous voltage sources

for generating or absorbing reactive power. A
synchronous voltage source (SVS) is
constructed using a voltage source converter
(VSC). Such a shunt compensating device is
calledstatic compensator or STATCOM.
A STATCOM usually contains an SVS that is
driven from a dc storage capacitor and the SVS
is connected to the ac system bus through an
interface transformer. The transformer steps
the ac system voltage down such that the
voltage rating of the SVS switches are within
specified limit.

Structure of STATCOM

Basically, the STATCOM system is

comprised of

Power converters,

Set of coupling reactors or a

step-up transformer,

Controller

COMPARISON OF VI CHARACTERISTICS
OF SVC AND STATCOM

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Advantages of STATCOM

The reactive components used in the STATCOM are

much smaller than those in the SVC.
The characteristics of STATCOM are superior.
The output current of STATCOM can be controlled up to
the rated maximum capacitive or inductive range.
Reduction of the capacity of semiconductor power
converter and capacitor bank to one half of those for
the conventional SVC.
Better transient response of the order of quarter cycle.
Reduction of harmonic filter capacity.
Reduction of size of high value air-cored reactor.
Reduction of equipment volume and foot-print.
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Synchronous Condensor

A device whose main function is the

improvement of pf of the electrical system is
known as the synchronous condensor. It is
installed at the receiving end of the line .
When a synchronous condensor is introduced it
supplies the kVAR to the system , and hence the
current is reduced .
Therefore the losses are reduced and provides a
better efficiency . Hence more power can be
delivered to the load and improves the pf of the
system.

CONCLUSION

From all the previous discussion we can

conclude reactive power compensation
is a must for improving the performance
of the ac system. By reactive power
compensation we can control the power
factor and reduce the consumption of
electricity.

METHODS OF VOLTAGE CONTROL

The different voltage-control methods

are:
Excitation control.
Shunt capacitors.
Series capacitors.
Tap-changing transformers.
Boosters.
Synchronous condensers

Excitation control:

This method is used only at the

generating station.
Due to the voltage drop in the
synchronous reactance of armature,
whenever the load on the supply system
changes, the terminal voltage of the
alternator also changes.
This can be kept constant by changing
the field current of the alternator
according to the changes in load. This is
known as excitation control.

Shunt capacitor

Series capacitor

1. Supplies fixed amount of reactive power

1.

to the system at the point where they are

independent

installed. Its effect is felt in the circuit from

instantaneous changes occur. Its effect is

the location towards supply source only

from its location towards the load end

2. It reduces the reactive power fl owing in

2. It is effective:

the line and causes:

Quantum

of
of

compensation
load

current

is
and

a.

a. Improvement of p.f. of a system

b. Voltage profile improvement
c. Decreases kVA loading on source, i.e.,
generators, transformers, and line
upto location and thus provides an
additional capacity

On tie lines, the power transfer is

greater
b. Specifically, suitable for situations
when flickers due to respective load
functions occur

3. The location has to be as near to the load

3. As a thumb rule, the best location is

point as possible. In practice, due to the

1/3rd of electrical impedance from the

high compensation required, it is found to

source bus

be

economical

to

provide

group

4. As fixed kVAr is supplied, this may

4. As full-load current is to pass through,

sometimes result in overcompensation in

the capacity (current rating) should be

the

more than the load current

light-load

period.

Switched

kVAr

banks are comparatively costlier than

fixed kVAr and become necessary
5. As the p.f. approaches unity, larger

5. As series capacitors carry fault current,

compensation

special protection is required to protect from

is

required

for

the

improvement of p.f.
6.

Where

lines

fault current
are

heavily

loaded,

6. Causes sudden rises in voltage at the

compensation required will be more

location

7. Cost of compensation is lower than that

7. Cost of a series capacitor is higher than

of the cost required for series capacitor

that of a shunt capacitor

Series Capacitor

Series Capacitor

Tap-changing transformers

A tap-changing transformer is a static

device having a number of tap settings
on its secondary side for obtaining
different secondary voltages.
The basic function of this device is to
change the transformation ratio,
whereby the voltage in the secondary
circuit is varied making possible voltage
control at all voltage levels at any load.
The supply may not be interrupted when
tap changing is done with and without

Off-load tap-changing
transformers

The off-load tap-changing transformer, which requires

the disconnection of the transformer from the load
when the tap setting is to be changed
The output of the secondary side of the transformer
changes with the change in the tap position of the
secondary winding. The secondary voltage is minimum
when the movable arm makes contact with stud 1,
whereas it is maximum when it is in position N. When
the load on the transformer increases, the voltage
across secondary terminals decreases. This can be
increased to the desired value by adding the number
of turns on the secondary of the transformer by
changing taps.

The main drawback is that the taps are changed only

after the removal of the load.
This can be overcome by using an on-load tap-changing
transformer with reactors.

On-load tap-changing
transformer

To supply uninterrupted power to the load (consumer), tap changing has to

be performed when the system is on load.

The secondary winding in a tap-changing transformer consists of two

identical parallel windings with similar tappings. For example, 1, 2,
,Nand 1, 2, ,N are the tappings on both the parallel windings of such
a transformer. These two parallel windings are controlled by switches
Saand Sbas shown inFig.

In thenormal operating conditions, switches Sa, Sb, and tappings 1 and 1

are closed, i.e., both the secondary windings of the transformer are
connected in parallel, and each winding carries half of the total load current
by an equal sharing.
The secondary side of the transformer is at a rated voltage under no load,
when the switches Saand Sbare closed and movable arms make contact
with stud 1 and 1, whereas it is maximum (above the rated value) under
no load, when the movable arms are in position N and N. The voltage at
the secondary terminal decreases with an increase in the load. To
compensate for the decreased voltages, it is required to change switches
from positions 1 and 1 to positions 2 and 2 (number of turns on the
secondary is increased).
For this, open any one of the switches Saand Sb, assuming that Sais
opened. At this instant, the secondary winding controlled by switch

This method has the following disadvantages:

It requires two windings with rated current-carrying capacity instead of
one winding.
It requires two operations for the change of a single step.
Complications are introduced in the design in order to obtain a high
reactance between the parallel windings.

Booster transformers

The booster transformer performs the

function of boosting the voltage. It can
be installed at a sub-station or at any
intermediate point of line.

Synchronous condenser

Static capacitors

1. Harmonics in the voltage does not exist

1. Large harmonics are produced in the

system

2.

Power

factor

variation

is

stepless

2. Power factor varies in steps

(uniform)
3. It allows overloading for a short period

3. It does not allow any overloading

4. Power loss is more

4. Power loss is less

5. It is more economical in the case of large

5. It is more economical for small kVAr

kVAr

requirement

6. Failure rate is less and, therefore, this is

6. Failure rate is more and, therefore, it is

more reliable

less reliable

PV CURVES

The conceptual analysis of voltage stability is

useful carried out by usingPVcurves. These
are useful for the study of analysis of radial
systems.

The short-circuit current,

Short-circuit p.f.,
The total load current,

The power delivered to the load,

Condition for maximum power delivered

is

RL=Z, is the condition for maximum power delivered

Substituting this condition inEquation (9.42), we get the maximum
power as

NowVocis the open-circuit voltage,

i.e.,VrwhenIr= 0.

Letxbe the distance from the sending end

andlbe the length of the line
For a lossless line,r= 0 andg= 0, then the
voltage at distancexfrom the sending end
becomes
V(x)=Vrcos(l x) +jZcIrsin(l x)

whereis the phase constant

Suppose the line is open circuited at the receiving
end, i.e.,Ir= 0,

Similarly, the short-circuit currentIscis the value ofIrwhenVr= 0

Assuming the line to be lossless, cossc= 0

Equation (9.43)represents loci of maximum power for different line

lengths at unity p.f.

The receiving-end current,

The sending-end voltage of the line, if assuming the

line to be lossless, now becomes

For a fixed sending-end voltageVsand the fixed line

length,Equation (9.44)is quadratic inVrand thus will
have two roots.Figure 9.25shows a graphical relation
between as a function of normalized loading .
FromFig. 9.25,it is observed that the maximum power
can be transmitted for each load p.f. and for any
loading, there are two different values ofVr.

The normal operation of the power system is along the

upper part of the curve where the receiving-end voltage is
nearly 1.0 p.u.

The load is increased by decreasing the effective

resistance of the load upto the maximum power; the
product of load voltage and current increases as the
system is stable.

As the point of maximum power is reached, a further

reduction in effective load resistance reduces the voltage
more than the increase in current and therefore, there is an
effective reduction in power transmission.

The voltage finally collapses to zero and the system at the

receiving end is effectively short-circuited and therefore,
the power transmitted is zero (point at origin inFig. 9.25).

It is observed fromFig. 9.25that the power transmitted is

zero both at Point K and Point 0. Point K corresponding to

ThesePVcurves
are
different
for
different p.f.s. At more leading p.f.s, the
maximum power is higher and for that
the shunt compensation is provided.
The nose voltage of thePVcurve has
the critical voltage at the receiving end
for maximum power transfer.
With leading p.f., the critical voltage is
higher, which is a very important aspect
of voltage stability.

QV CURVES

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