IV International Conference on Lightning Protection

St. Petersburg, Russia, May 27-29, 2014

CIGRE Technical Brochure on

Lightning Parameters for
Engineering Applications
Vladimir A. Rakov
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida

In April 2008, CIGRE (International

Council on Large Electric Systems)
formed a new Working Group C4.407,
named Lightning Parameters for
Engineering Applications.
That was an initiative of Prof. C.A.
Nucci (then Convener of the CIGRE
Study Committee C4) and Prof. M. Ishii
(Convener of the Advisory Group C4.4).
The WG C4.407 was composed of 21
members from North and South
America, Europe, and Asia. It was
tasked to prepare a CIGRE Reference

CIGRE WG C4.407 has completed its work on the

Technical Brochure in May 2013. This Brochure
(CIGRE TB 549, 2013) can be viewed as an
update on previous CIGRE documents on the
subject published in Electra more than three
decades ago: Berger et al. (1975) and Anderson
and Eriksson (1980).
This lecture is largely a presentation of the
Executive Summary of CIGRE TB 549 (2013),
expanded to include some illustrations.
Anderson, R.B., and Eriksson, A.J. 1980. Lightning parameters for engineering
application. Electra, No. 69, pp. 65-102.
Berger, K., Anderson, R.B., and Kroninger, H. 1975. Parameters of lightning
flashes. Electra, No. 41, pp. 23-37.
CIGRE TB 549, Lightning Parameters for Engineering Applications, WG C4.407,
V.A. Rakov, Convenor (US), A. Borghetti, Secretary (IT), C. Bouquegneau (BE), W.A.

General Characterization of Lightning

About 80% or more of negative cloud-to-ground
lightning flashes are composed of two or more
strokes. This percentage is appreciably higher than
55% previously estimated by Anderson and Eriksson
(1980), based on a variety of less accurate records.
Roughly one-third to one-half of lightning flashes
create two or more terminations on ground separated
by up to several kilometers.
In order to account for multiple channel terminations
on ground, a correction factor of 1.5-1.7
(considerably larger than 1.1 previously estimated by
Anderson and Eriksson (1980)) for the ground flash
density is needed. Bouquegneau et al. (2012)
suggested a conservative value of 2 for lightning risk

Multiple Channel Terminations on Ground

Min = 0.3 km
Max = 7.3 km
GM = 1.7 km

Histogram of the distances between the multiple terminations of 22 individual ground flashes
in Florida. The distances were determined using optical triangulation and thunder ranging.
Adapted from Thottappillil et al. (1992).
6

Return-Stroke Parameters Derived from

Current Measurements
Direct current measurements by K. Berger and coworkers in Switzerland remain the primary
reference for both lightning research and lightning
protection studies. Bergers peak current
distributions are generally confirmed by recent
direct current measurements, particularly by those
with larger sample sizes obtained in Japan (N=120),
Austria (N=615), and Florida (N=165).
From direct current measurements, the median
return-stroke peak current is about 30 kA for
negative first strokes and typically 10-15 kA for
subsequent strokes. Additional measurements are
needed to determine more reliably the tails of the
statistical distributions. As of today, there is no

Lightning Peak Current Bergers Distributions

Negative first strokes

Positive first strokes

Negative
subsequent strokes

Lightning peak currents for

first strokes vary by a
factor of 50 or more, from
about 5 to 250 kA.
The probability of
occurrence of a given
value rapidly increases up
to 25 kA or so and then
slowly decreases.
Statistical distributions of
this type are often
assumed to be lognormal.

Cumulative statistical distributions of lightning peak currents, giving percent of

cases exceeding abscissa value, from direct measurements in Switzerland
(Berger et al. 1975). The distributions are assumed to be lognormal and given for
(1) negative first strokes (N=101), (2) positive first strokes (N=26), and (3)
negative subsequent strokes (N=135).
8

Lightning Peak Current IEEE and CIGRE Distributions

99.99
99.9

Percent exceeding abscissa value

99.5
99
98

For the CIGRE distribution, 98% of peak

currents exceed 4 kA, 80% exceed 20
kA, and 5% exceed 90 kA.

IEEE

95

CIGRE

90

For the IEEE distribution, the

probability to exceed values are given
by the following equation

80
70
60
50
40
30

PI

20
10
5
2
1
0.5
0.1
0.01

10

100

1000

Peak current, kA

Cumulative statistical distributions of

peak currents for negative first strokes
adopted by IEEE and CIGRE (N = 408).
Taken from CIGRE Report 63 (1991).
9

1
2. 6
1 I
31

where I is in per unit, and I is in kA.

This equation applies to values of I up
to 200 kA. The median (50%) peak
current value is equal to 31 kA.

Return-Stroke Parameters Derived from Current

Measurements

Direct lightning current measurements on

instrumented towers should be continued.
Currently, direct current measurements are
performed on instrumented towers in
- Austria (Gaisberg Tower, 100 m),
- Brazil (Morro do Cachimbo Tower, 60 m),
- Canada (CN Tower, 553 m),
- Germany (Peissenberg Tower, 160 m),
- Japan (Tokyo Sky Tree, 634 m), and
- Switzerland (Santis Tower, 124 m),
although the overwhelming majority of

Return-Stroke Parameters Derived from

Current Measurements

Recommended lightning current waveshape

parameters are still based on Berger et al.s
(1975) data, although the current rate-of-rise
parameters estimated by Anderson and
Eriksson (1980) from Berger et al.'s
oscillograms are likely to be significantly
underestimated, due to limitations of the
instrumentation used by Berger et al.
Triggered-lightning data for current rates of
rise (acquired using modern instrumentation)
can be applied to subsequent strokes in

Parameter

Description

I10
I30
I90
I100= II
IF
T10/90
T30/90
S10
S10/90

10% intercept along the stroke current waveshape

30% intercept along the stroke current waveshape
90% intercept along the stroke current waveshape
Initial peak of current
Final (global) peak of current (same as peak current without an adjective)
Time between I10 and I90 intercepts on the wavefront
Time between I30 and I90 intercepts on the wavefront
Instantaneous rate-of-rise of current at I10

S30/90
Sm
td 10/90
td 30/90
tm
QI

Average steepness (through I30 and I90 intercepts)

Maximum rate-of-rise of current along wavefront, typically at I90
Equivalent linear wavefront duration derived from IF / S10/90
Equivalent linear wavefront duration derived from IF / S30/90
Equivalent linear waveform duration derived from IF / Sm
Impulse charge (time integral of current)

Average steepness (through I10 and I90 intercepts)

Description of lightning current waveform parameters. The waveform

corresponds to the typical negative first return stroke. Adapted from
CIGRE Document 63 (1991) and IEEE Std 1410-2010.

Lightning current parameters (based on Bergers data)

recommend by CIGR Document 63 (1991) and IEEE Std
1410-2010
Parameters of log-normal distribution for negative downward flashes

Parameter

First stroke
, logarithmic
(base e)
M, Median
standard
deviation

Subsequent stroke
M, Median

, logarithmic
(base e) standard
deviation

FRONT TIME (s)

td10/90 = T10/90/0.8

5.63

0.576

0.75

0.921

td30/90 = T30/90/0.6

3.83

0.553

0.67

1.013

1.28

0.611

0.308

0.708

tm=IF / Sm

STEEPNESS (kA/s)
Sm, Maximum

24.3

0.599

39.9

0.852

S10, at 10%

2.6

0.921

18.9

1.404

S10/90, 10-90%

5.0

0.645

15.4

0.944

S30/90, 30-90%

7.2

0.622

20.1

0.967

PEAK (CREST) CURRENT (kA)

II, initial

27.7

0.461

11.8

0.530

IF, final

31.1

0.484

12.3

0.530

Ratio, II/IF

0.9

0.230

0.9

0.207

Relation between the peak value of (maximum) current

rate of rise and peak current from triggered-lightning
experiments conducted at the NASA Kennedy Space
Center, Florida, in 1985, 1987, and 1988 and in France in
1986. The regression line for each year is shown, and the
sample size and the regression equation are given.
Adapted from Leteinturier et al. (1991).

Return-Stroke Parameters Derived from Current

Measurements
Relatively strong correlation is observed
between the lightning peak current and charge
transfer and between the current rate-of-rise
and current peak. Relatively weak or no
correlation is observed between the current
peak and current risetime and between the
current peak and current duration (from 2 kA to
Ip/2).
(a)

(b)

S10/90, kA/S

Scatter plots relating return-stroke current waveform parameters

for rocket-triggered lightning in Florida (1990) and Alabama (1991).
(a) Current peak versus S10/90; (b) current peak versus 10-90%

Peak Current Inferred from Measured

Electromagnetic Field
The field-to-current conversion procedure employed by
the U.S. National Lightning Detection Network (NLDN)
and other similar lightning locating systems has been
calibrated, using rocket-triggered lightning data and
tower-initiated lightning data, only for negative
subsequent strokes, with the median absolute error
being 10 to 20%.
Peak current estimation errors for negative first strokes
and for positive lightning are presently unknown.
Besides systems of NLDN type, there are other lightning
locating systems that are also reporting lightning peak
currents inferred from measured fields, including LINET
(mostly in Europe), USPLN (in the U.S., but similar
systems operate in other countries), ENTLN (in the U.S.

NLDN reported peak currents vs. those directly measured at Camp

Blanding, Florida, for 268 negative strokes in lightning triggered in 20042013. The diagonal represents the ideal situation when the NLDN-reported
and directly-measured peak currents are equal to each other. Adapted
from Mallick et al. (2014).

Continuing Currents

The percentage of positive flashes or strokes

containing continuing currents (CC) is much
higher than that of negative flashes or
strokes. Positive strokes tend to be followed
by longer and more intense CC than negative
strokes.
Negative strokes initiating long (>40 ms)
continuing currents tend to have a lower
peak current (also to be preceded by higherpeak-current strokes and by relatively short
interstroke intervals), while positive strokes
can produce both a high peak current and a

Peak current (Ip) versus CC duration for 586

negative strokes and 141 positive strokes.
Provided by M.M.F. Saba.

Lightning Return Stroke Propagation Speed

The lightning return-stroke speed is needed in
computing lightning electromagnetic fields that
cause induced overvoltages in power distribution
lines. It is also explicitly or implicitly assumed in
procedures to infer lightning currents from
measured fields.
The average propagation speed of a negative
return stroke (first or subsequent) below the lower
cloud boundary is typically between one-third and
one-half of the speed of light.
It appears that the return-stroke speed for first
strokes is lower than that for subsequent strokes,
although the difference is not very large (9.6 107
8

Equivalent Impedance of the Lightning Channel

The equivalent impedance of the lightning channel,
Zch, is needed for specifying the source in studies of
either direct-strike or induced lightning effects.
The estimates of this impedance from limited
experimental data suggest values ranging from
several hundred ohms to a few kiloohms. In many
practical situations the impedance seen by
lightning at the strike point is some tens of ohms or
less, which allows one to assume infinitely large
equivalent impedance of the lightning channel. In
other words, lightning in these situations can be
viewed as an ideal current source.
Representation of lightning by a current source with
internal impedance of 400 ohm, similar to that of an

Positive and Bipolar Lightning Discharges

In spite of the recent progress, our knowledge of the
physics of positive lightning remains considerably poorer
than that of negative lightning.
Because of the absence of other direct current
measurements for positive lightning return strokes, it is
still recommended to use the peak current distribution
based on the 26 events recorded by K. Berger, even
though some of those 26 events are likely to be not of
classical return-stroke type.
Clearly, additional measurements for positive lightning
return strokes are needed to establish reliable
distributions of peak current and other parameters for
this type of lightning.

Positive Lightning
Lightning current parameters for positive flashes (Berger et al., 1975)

Parameters

Peak current (minimum 2 kA)

kA

26

4.6

35

Charge (total charge)

26

20

80

350

24

Impulse charge (excluding

continuing current )

25

2.0

16

150

20

Front Duration (2 kA to peak)

19

3.5

22

200

18

kA/s

21

0.20

2.4

32

32

16

25

230

2000

200

Action integral ( i2dt )

A2s

26

Flash Duration

ms

24

Maximum di/dt
Stroke duration ( 2 kA to half
peak value on the tail)

23

5% Value

Units

Sample Percent Exceeding Tabulated Value for

Negative
Size
First
First
Strokes
50%
95%

2.5x105
14

250

80

6.5x105

1.5x107 5.5x105

85

500

Upward Lightning Discharges

Tall objects (higher than 100 m or so) located on flat
terrain and objects of moderate height (some tens of
meters) located on mountain tops experience
primarily upward lightning discharges that are
initiated by upward-propagating leaders.
Upward (object-initiated) lightning discharges always
involve an initial stage that may or may not be
followed by downward-leader/upward-return-stroke
sequences. The percentage of upward flashes with
return strokes varies from 20 to 50%.
The initial-stage steady current typically has a
magnitude of some hundreds of amperes and typical
charge transfers of 30-40 C, and often exhibits
superimposed pulses whose peaks range from tens

Schematic current record of upward-initiated flash.

Labeled are the initial continuous current (ICC) with
three superimposed ICC pulses, a period of no current
flow, and two return strokes (RS). Adapted from
Diendorfer et al. (2009).

Geographical and Seasonal Variations in

Lightning Parameters
At the present time, the available information is
not sufficient to confirm or refute a hypothesis on
dependence of negative CG lightning parameters
on geographical location or season.
On the other hand, some local conditions may
exist (for example, winter storms in Japan) that
give rise to more frequent occurrence of unusual
types of lightning, primarily of upward type, whose
parameters may differ significantly from those of
ordinary lightning. Further studies are necessary
to clarify those conditions and their possible

Percentage of flashes that produce a given number

of ground contacts in Arizona, USA, and So Paulo,
Brazil. The average number of ground contacts in
both locations is 1.7. Adapted from Saraiva et al.
(2010).

Lightning Parameters Needed for Different

Engineering Applications

This chapter of the Technical Brochure was

envisioned to serve as a "bridge" between the
description of lightning parameters found in
the preceding chapters and the existing
standards and other literature on specific
applications of those parameters.
No attempt was made to present detailed
descriptions of the various procedures in which
lightning parameters are used as an input.
Instead, references to the pertinent CIGRE
documents, standards, and published papers
are given.

Negative downward leader

Positive upward connecting

leader (~400 m)

A downward negative flash terminating on the

440-m Guangzhou International Finance Center,

Time variation of the ratio of speeds of

downward (negative) and upward connecting
(positive) leaders (Vd/Vu)
Assumptions on Vd/Vu in
leader-progression-type
models

The length of the upward connecting leader was

~400 m, with the initial ~100 m being too faint for
speed measurements. Adapted from Lu et al. (2013).

Reference

Vd/Vu

Eriksson
[1987]

Rizk [1990]

Dellera and
Garbagnati
[1990]

Decreasin
g
from 4 to
1

Mazur et
al. [2000]

Monte San Salvatore Tower (70 m), Lugano, Switzerland

Thank You

Courtesy of Prof. R.E. Orville, Texas A&M

31

32

Lightning Parameters Derived from Direct Current Measurements

Parameters

Peak current (minimum 2 kA)

First strokes
Subsequent strokes
Charge (total charge)
First strokes
Subsequent strokes
Complete flash
Impulse charge (excluding
continuing current)
First strokes
Subsequent strokes
Front duration (2 kA to peak)
First strokes
Subsequent strokes
Maximum dI/dt
First strokes
Subsequent strokes

Units

Sample
Size

Percent Exceeding Tabulated Value

95%

50%

5%

30
12

80
30

kA

101
135

14
4.6

93
122
94

1.1
0.2
1.3

5.2
1.4
7.5

24
11
40

90
117

1.1
0.22

4.5
0.95

20
4

89
118

1.8
0.22

5.5
1.1

18
4.5

kA s-1

92
122

5.5
12

Stroke duration (2 kA to half

peak value on the tail)
First strokes
Subsequent strokes

Action integral (I2dt)

First strokes
Subsequent strokes

A 2s

90
115
91
88

30
6.5
6.0 x 103
5.5 x 102

12
40

32
120

75
32

200
140

5.5 x 104
6.0 x 103

5.5 x 105
5.2 x 104

Lightning-induced voltages on overhead power lines

V = 50 kV

I = -22.3 kA

Typical Induced Voltage at a distance of 145 m and Corresponding Stroke Current (93-05)
34

Electrogeometrical Model (EGM)

Ng=const

Capture surfaces

rs
rs

rs

Illustration of capture surfaces of two towers and earths surface in the electrogeometrical
model (EGM). rs is the striking distance defined as the distance from the tip of the descending
leader to the object to be struck at the instant when an upward connecting leader is initiated
from this object. Vertical arrows represent descending leaders, assumed to be uniformly
distributed (Ng=const) above the capture surfaces. Adapted from Bazelyan and Raizer (2000).
35

Electrogeometrical Model (EGM)

{ r = 10 I

0.65

,m

where I is in kA

1
2

I, kA

rs, m

10

45

30

91

170

282

Striking distance, rs, versus return-stroke peak current, I [curve 1, Golde (1945); curve 2, Wagner (1963);
curve 3, Love (1973); curve 4, Ruhling (1972); x, theory of Davis (1962);
, estimates from twodimensional photographs by Eriksson (1978); , estimates from three-dimensional photography by
Eriksson (1978). Adapted from Golde (1977) and Eriksson (1978).
36

Electrogeometrical Model (EGM)

102

Finding rs = f(I)
Assume leader geometry,
total leader charge Q, and
distribution of this charge
along the channel.

Assume critical average

electric field between the
leader tip and the strike
object at the time of
initiation of upward
connecting leader from the
object (200-600 kV/m)

Find rs = f(Q)

Use an empirical relation

between Q and I to find
= f(I)

I = 10.6 Q0.7
101

For Q = 5 C
I = 33 kA

100

I peak/ Q impulse
neg. first strokes
n=89

10-1

rs

102
100
101
Scatter plot of impulse charge,I Q, versus return-stroke
peak current, I. Note that both vertical and horizontal
scales are logarithmic. The best fit to data, I = 10.6 Q0.7,
where Q is in coulombs and I is in kiloamperes, was used
in deriving rs = 10 I0.65 Adapted from Berger (1972).

37

Lightning Attachment Process

First optical image of upward connecting leader in rocket-triggered

lightning (Wang et al. 1999a)

38

Wang et al. (2014)

Striking distance (2 times the return-stroke initiation height) vs.

return-stroke peak current derived from luminosity for 7 strokes
in the anomalous flash (h = 10 m) triggered at Camp Blanding in
2012. The red curve is based on data for 14 classical triggeredlightning strokes (with directly measured currents, h = 5 m)

r = 10
I0.65
Natural flash first
stroke at LOG (h
< 25 m)

<

Anomalous flash
first stroke at
CB (h = 10 m)

Subsequent
strokes (h = 10 m)

Striking distance (2 times the return-stroke initiation height) vs.

return-stroke peak current derived from luminosity for 7 strokes
in the anomalous flash (h = 10 m) triggered at Camp Blanding in
2012. The red curve is based on data for 14 classical triggeredlightning strokes (directly measured currents, h = 5 m) from
2011 experiments at Camp Blanding. The blue curve is

Optical Images of Leader and Attachment Process Triggered Lightning

Dart-stepped leader and attachement process in rocket-triggered lightning (Sept. 17, 2008)
at Camp Blanding, Florida; Photron FASTCAM SA1.1, 50000 fps (20 s per frame); h = 17 m

25 m

56 m

16 m

1 frame before return stroke 8

2 frames before return stroke 8
Biagi et al. (2009, GRL)
41

180

Striking distance (m)

160
140
120

r = 10 I 0.65

100
80
60
40

(2009)

20
0
0

(2009)

10

20
Peak current (kA)

30

40

Striking distance (2 times the total upward connecting leader length) vs. peak current for
11 classical triggered-lightning strokes from 2008 (h = 17 m) and 2009 (h = 15 m) Camp
Blanding experiments (based on work of Biagi (2011)). Also shown is the IEC standard
dependence.

CIGRE WG C4.407 Scope

Evaluation of current measurements on instrumented

towers

Evaluation of current measurements for rocket-triggered

lightning

Evaluation of the procedures used to estimate lightning

currents from measured fields, with emphasis on those
implemented in lightning locating systems

Inclusion of additional lightning parameters (e.g.,

characteristics of continuing currents, return-stroke
propagation speed, equivalent lightning channel
impedance, etc.) that are presently not on the CIGRE list,
but needed in engineering applications

Further characterization of positive and bipolar lightning

discharges

Characterization of upward lightning discharges

Search for any geographical, seasonal and other variations

in lightning parameters

Return-Stroke Parameters Derived from Current

Measurements
The global distributions of lightning peak currents for negative
first strokes currently recommended by CIGRE and IEEE are each
based on a mix of direct current measurements and less
accurate indirect measurements, some of which are of
questionable quality.
However, since the global distributions have been widely used
in lightning protection studies and are not much different from
that based on direct measurements only, continued use of these
global distributions for representing negative first strokes is
recommended, along with Bergers distribution having a median
of 30 kA, lgI = 0.265.
For negative subsequent strokes and for positive lightning
strokes, Bergers peak current distributions are still
recommended. For negative subsequent strokes, a log-normal
distribution with median = 12 kA and lgI = 0.265 should be

10-to-90% and 30-to-90% Average

Slopes: Triggered-Lightning Data vs.
Bergers Natural-Lightning Data
(a) 10 90% Average Slope

(S10/90)

(b) 30 90% Average Slope

(S30/90)

Trigg.

Natur

46

(a) The 10-90% average (steepness): S-10 = 0.8Ip/T-10. (b) The

30-90% average (steepness): S-30=0.6Ip/T-30. GM is the
geometric mean and SD is the standard deviation of the
logarithm (base 10) of the parameter. Adapted from Fisher et al.
(1993).

Lightning Return Stroke Propagation Speed

There exists some experimental evidence that the negative
return stroke speed may vary non-monotonically along the
lightning channel, initially increasing and then decreasing with
increasing height.
Return-stroke speeds (108 m/s) at different heights for five
strokes in a triggered lightning flash. Adapted from Olsen et al.
(2004).
Stroke order

Height
range, m

Estimated
error, %

7 63

1.3

1.2

1.2

1.2

1.2

10

63 117

1.6

1.8

1.8

1.8

1.6

15

117 170

1.7

1.2

1.5

1.6

1.5

21

No data are available for stroke 3.

Engineering models of lightning

grounding impedance and (b) to a
which lightning is represented by
circuit, labeled source. Adapted
(2005).

strikes (a) to lumped

tall grounded object, in
the Norton equivalent
from Baba and Rakov

Positive and Bipolar Lightning Discharges

Although positive lightning discharges account for
10% or less of global cloud-to-ground lightning
activity, there are several situations, including, for
example, winter storms, that appear to be conducive
to the more frequent occurrence of positive lightning.
The highest directly measured lightning currents
(near 300 kA vs. a maximum of about 200 kA or less
for negative lightning) and the largest charge
transfers (hundreds of coulombs or more) are
associated with positive lightning.
Positive flashes are usually composed of a single
stroke, although up to four strokes per flash have
been observed. Subsequent strokes in positive
flashes can occur either in a new (a more common

Examples of two types of positive lightning current waveforms

observed by K. Berger: (a) microsecond-scale waveform, similar to
those produced by downward negative return strokes, and a sketch
illustrating the lightning processes that might have led to the
production of this waveform; (b) millisecond-scale waveform and a
sketch illustrating the lightning processes that might have led to
the production of this current waveform. Adapted from Rakov

Geographical and Seasonal Variations in

Lightning Parameters
From the information available in the literature at the
present time, there is no evidence of a systematic
dependence of negative cloud-to-ground lightning
parameters on geographical location, except maybe
for first and subsequent return-stroke peak currents,
for which relatively insignificant (less than 50%), from
the engineering point of view, variations may exist.
It is important to note, however, that it cannot be
ruled out that the observed differences in current
measurements are due to reasons other than
"geographical location, with the limited sample size
for some observations being of particular concern.
Similarly, no reliable information on seasonal

Number of strokes per negative flash and percentage of

single-stroke flashes.
Location
(Reference)

Average
Number of
Strokes per
Flash

Percentage
of SingleStroke
Flashes

Sample Size

New Mexico
(Kitagawa et al.,
1962)

6.4

13%

83

Florida
(Rakov and
Uman, 1990)

4.6

17%

76

Sweden
(Cooray and
Perez, 1994)

3.4

18%

137

Sri Lanka
(Cooray and
Jayaratne, 1994)

4.5

21%

81

Brazil
(Ballarotti et al.,
2012)

4.6

17%

883

Arizona