POWER SERIES

1
We write the decimal expansion of
as the repeating
3
decimal
1
0.3333333
3
Where 3 in this expansion go on for ever and ever. An
alternative way to write
1
0.3 0.03 0.003 K
3
3(0.1) 3(0.1) 2 3(0.1)3 K

3(0.1) n
n 1

Infinite series

Syahirbanun Isa, FSTPi, UTHM

In general, for any sequence a1 a2 K

down the series

an

, we can write

n 1

If the series converges to some number (let say S), then

we say that the series converges to S. On the other hand,
we say that the series is diverges if the partial sum of
sequence is diverges.
How to determine the series is converges or diverges?
Use convergence test

Syahirbanun Isa, FSTPi, UTHM

Convergence of
Geometric series

Convergence of
p series

Convergence of
Convergence of
Alternating series
Harmonic series
-------------------------------------------------------------------------Convergence of Geometric series
The geometric series

n
ar

n 0

converges if

or

n 1
ar

n 1

| r | 1 and diverges if| r | 1

a
converges, the sum is
1 r

. If the series

.
Syahirbanun Isa, FSTPi, UTHM

Convergence of Harmonic series

The harmonic series

n 1 n
is always diverges.
Convergence of p series
The p series

p
n
n 1
is converges if p 1 and diverges if0 p 1

Syahirbanun Isa, FSTPi, UTHM

Convergence of Alternating series

The series that contain both positive and negative term
is called alternating series. The general form:

n 1
(

1)
an a1 a2 a3 K or

n 1

n
(

1)
an a1 a2 a3 K
n 1

An alternating series is converges is the following two

conditions are satisfied:
a1 a2 a3 a4 K
(a)
If an alternating series
(b)
violates condition (b), the series
lim an 0
n

must diverge by a divergence test

BUT If condition (b) is satisfied,
but (a) is not, the series can
either be converge or diverge
(use other test)

Example: Convergence test I

Syahirbanun Isa, FSTPi, UTHM

CONVERGENCE TEST
Divergence test Ratio test Root test Comparison test
-------------------------------------------------------------------Divergence test
Let

a) If

b) if

be a series with positive terms

lim anthe
0 series may diverges, but

lim anthe
0 series may converges or diverges.

Syahirbanun Isa, FSTPi, UTHM

Ratio test
Let

a) If
b) If
c) If
tried.

abe a series with positive terms and suppose that

n

an 1
lim
n a
n

, the
1 series converges.
,the
series diverges
or 1
1
, there
is no conclusion. Another test must be

Syahirbanun Isa, FSTPi, UTHM

Root test

Let

a) If
b) If
c) If
tried.

abe a series with positive terms and suppose that

n

lim n an
n

, the
1 series converges.
,the
series diverges
or 1
1
, there
is no conclusion. Another test must be

Syahirbanun Isa, FSTPi, UTHM

Comparison test
Refer: Comparison test

Example: Convergence test II

Syahirbanun Isa, FSTPi, UTHM

ABSOLUTE & CONDITIONAL CONVERGENCE (pg 46-47)

un
Given the mixed sign series
Let

u
n 1

Converges?

an
n 1

n 1

Find convergence of
an

n 1

Diverges?

Not
The series is
Alternating series?
Alternating
converges
Series?
absolutelyUse alternating series test to
determine the convergence of The series is
Series (if it is alternating series).
diverges
Converges?
Diverges?
absolutely
The series is conditionallyThe series is
diverges
convergent
Syahirbanun Isa, FSTPi, UTHM
Example: Absolute and conditional

Ratio test for absolute convergence

Let unbe a series with positive and negative
terms and suppose that

a) If
b) If
c) If
tried.

un 1
lim
n u
n

, the
1 series converges absolutely.
,the
series diverges
or 1
1
, there
is no conclusion. Another test must be

Syahirbanun Isa, FSTPi, UTHM

POWER SERIES
Taylor and Maclaurin series
Taylor series
f n ( x0 )
f ( x0 )
n
2

(
x

x
)

f
(
x
)

f
(
x
)(
x

x
)

(
x

x
)

0
0
0
0
0
n
!
2!
n0
f ( x0 )

( x x0 )3 K
3!
x0 0 )
Maclaurin series (Taylor series when

n 0

f n (0) n
f (0) 2 f (0) 3
x f (0) f (0) x
x
x K
n!
2!
3!

Syahirbanun Isa, FSTPi, UTHM

How to find Taylor and Maclaurin series for a function?

f , f , f ,...of a function at least 5
Step 1Find
nonzeroterms (or depends on question) at the
given point.
Step 2Substitute Step 1 into the Taylor or Maclaurin
Series.
Step 3 Simplify.

Syahirbanun Isa, FSTPi, UTHM

Differentiation and integration of power series

If suppose f is represented by power series in x

f ( x) cn x n c0 c1 x c2 x 2 c3 x 3 K
n0

Then the differentiation and integration of power series is

f ( x) ncn x n 1 c1 2c2 x 3c3 x 2 K

n 0

cn x n 1
c1 x 2 c2 x 3 c3 x 4
f ( x) dx
c0 x

K
2
3
4
n0 n 1

Example: Taylor and Maclaurin series

Syahirbanun Isa, FSTPi, UTHM

Power series in x (pg 51-55)

Taylor and Maclaurin series is an example of power
series in x. In general, power series in x is defined as

n
c
x
n

where

n 0

c0 , c1 , c3 , K are constants and x is variable.

Radius and interval of convergence

n
c
x
If any x value is substituted in a power series
n
n 0

The resulting series may either converge or diverge.

This will lead to the problem of determining the value of x
that will make the power series converges.

Syahirbanun Isa, FSTPi, UTHM

Step of finding radius and interval of convergence

n
c
x
Given the power series n
n0

Step 1Apply ratio test for absolute convergence.

Will get the open interval of convergence
x ( a , b)
Investigate the convergence at point x = a and
Step 2
x = b by substitute these value into the power
series and then use any suitable convergence test.
Step 3State radius of convergence
ba
R
2
Example:
Radius and interval of convergence
Syahirbanun Isa, FSTPi, UTHM

SOME PRACTICAL WAYS TO FIND MACLAURIN SERIES

(pg 59-62)
By substitution
Example: Practical ways
By convergent Geometric series
Consider the geometric series

n
2
ar

ar

ar
K

n 0

a
1 r

Example: Practical ways

By differentiation, By integration, By multiplication and divisi

Syahirbanun Isa, FSTPi, UTHM