1

( )Matrices
1.1 Operations with Matrices ()
1.2 Properties of Matrix Operations (
)
1.3 The Inverse of a Matrix ()
1.4 Elementary Matrices ()
1.5 Applications of Matrix Operations (
)

1.1

1.1 Operations with Matrices ()

Matrix:

a11
a
21
A [aij ] a31

am1

a12
a22
a32

am 2

a13
a 23
a33

am 3

a1n
a2 n
M mn
a3n

amn mn

(i, j)-th entry (or element): aij

number of rows () : m
number of columns () : n
Size () : mn
Square matrix () : m
=n

1.2

Equal matrices () : two matrices are equal if

they have the same size (m n) and entries corresponding to the
same position are equal
For A [aij ]m n and B [bij ]m n ,

A B if and only if aij bij for 1 i m, 1 j n

Ex 1: Equality of matrices ()
1 2
A

3
4

a b
B

c
d

If A B, then a 1, b 2, c 3, and d 4

1.3

Matrix addition () :
If A [aij ]m n , B [bij ]m n ,
then A B [aij ]mn [bij ]mn [aij bij ]mn [cij ]mn C

Ex 2: Matrix addition () :
1 2 1 3 1 1 2 3 0 5
0 1 1 2 0 1 1 2 1 3

1 1
11

3 3 3 3

2 2

2 2

0
0

0
1.4

Scalar multiplication () :
If A [aij ]mn and c is a constant scalar,
then cA [caij ]m n

Matrix subtraction () ::
A B A (1) B
Ex 3: Scalar multiplication and matrix subtraction

1 2 4
3 0 1

2 1 2

0 0
2
B 1 4 3

3 2
1

Find (a) 3A, (b) B, (c) 3A B

1.5

Sol:
(a)

3A 3

(b)

1 2 4 31 3 2
3 4 3 6 12
3 0 1 3 3 3 0 3 1 9 0 3

2 1 2 3 2 31
3 2 6 3
6

0
0
0 0
2
2
4 3
B 1 1 4 3 1

1 3 2
3 2
1

(c)
3A B

1 6 12
3 6 12 2
0 0
9 0 3 1 4 3 10 4 6

4
6 3
6 1
3 2 7 0
1.6

Matrix multiplication () :
If A [aij ]m n and B [bij ]n p ,

then AB [aij ]m n [bij ]n p [cij ]m p C ,

should be equal
size of C=AB
n

where cij aik bkj ai1b1 j ai 2b2 j ain bnj

k 1

a11

ai1

a12 a1n

ai 2

an1 an 2

ain


ann

b11 b1 j b1n

b21 b2 j b2 n

ci1 ci 2 cij cin

bn1 bnj bnn

The entry cij is obtained by calculating the sum of the entry-by-entry

product between the ith row of A and the jth column of B
1.7

Ex 4: Find AB
1 3
3 2

A 4 2
B

4
1

2 2
5 0 3 2
Sol:
(1)(3) (3)(4) (1)(2) (3)(1)
AB (4)(3) (2)(4) (4)(2) ( 2)(1)
(5)(3) (0)(4)
(5)(2) (0)(1)

3 2

9 1
4 6
15 10 3 2
Note: (1) BA is not multipliable
(2) Even BA is multipliable BA , ABBA

1.8

Matrix form of a system of linear equations in n variables

:
a11 x1 a12 x2 a1n xn b1
a x a x a x b
21 1 22 2
2n n
2

m linear equations

am1 x1 am 2 x2 amn xn bm

a11
a
21

am1

a12 a1n x1 b1
a22 a2 n x2 b2

am 2 amn xn bm

single matrix equation

Axb
m n n 1

m 1

1.9

Trace operation ( ) Tr(A):

If A [aij ]n n , then Tr ( A) a11 a22 L ann

Tr (A T ) Tr (A );
Tr (AB ) Tr (BA );

Tr (A B ) Tr ( A ) Tr (B )
Tr (kB ) kTr (A )

Diagonal matrix () : a square matrix in which

nonzero elements are found only in the principal diagonal
d1 0
0 d
2
A diag (d1 , d 2 , , d n )

0 0

0
0
M nn

d n

It is the usual notation for a diagonal matrix.

1.10

1.2 Properties of Matrix Operations ()

Three basic matrix operators, introduced in Sec. 1.1:

(1) matrix addition
(2) scalar multiplication
(3) matrix multiplication

Zero matrix () :

0 m n

0
0

Identity matrix of order n () :

0
0 L 0

M O M

0 L 0 mn
0 L

1
0
In
M

0
1 L 0

M O M

0 L 1 n n
0 L

1.11

Properties of matrix addition and scalar multiplication:

If A, B, C M m n , and c, d are scalars,

then (1) A+B = B+A

(Commutative property of addition) ()

(2) A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C

(3) ( cd ) A = c ( dA )
(4) 1A = A

(Associative property of addition) ()

(Associative property of scalar multiplication)

(Multiplicative identity property, and 1 is the multiplicative

identity for all matrices)

(5) c( A+B ) = cA + cB
(6) ( c+d ) A = cA + dA

(Distributive property of scalar multiplication

over matrix addition) ()
(Distributive property of scalar
multiplication over real-number addition)

c, d ( )
1.12

Properties of zero matrices () :

If A M m n , and c is a scalar,
then (1) A 0mn A
So, 0mn is also called the additive identity for the set of all mn matrices

(2) A ( A) 0mn
Thus , A is called the additive inverse of A

(3) cA 0mn c 0 or A 0mn

1.13

Properties of matrix multiplication () :

(1) (BC) = (AB ) C (Associative property of matrix multiplication) ()
property of LHS matrix multiplication
(2) (B+C) = AB + AC (Distributive
over matrix addition)

(3) (A+B)C = AC + BC (Distributive property of RHS matrix multiplication

over matrix addition)
(4) c (AB) = (cA) B = A (cB)
For real numbers, the properties (2) and (3) are the same.

Properties of the identity matrix () : :

If A M mn , then (1) AI n A
(2) I m A A
For real numbers, the role of 1 is similar to the identity matrix. However, 1 is
unique for real numbers and there could be many identity matrices with
different sizes

1.14

Ex 3: Matrix Multiplication is Associative ( )

Calculate (AB)C and A(BC) for

1 0
1 2
1 0 2
3 1 .
A
,
B

,
and
C

3 2 1

2 4

Sol:
1 2 1
( AB)C
3
2

5 4 0

1
2
3

1 0
0 2

3
1

2 1
2 4
1 0
17 4

3 1
13 14

2 4
1.15

1 2 1
A( BC )
3
2

1 2 3

7
2

1 0
0 2

3
1

2 1
2 4

8
17 4
2 13 14

1.16

Definition of Ak : repeated multiplication of a square matrix:

A1 A, A2 AA,K , Ak 1
AA
4 2L43A
k matrices

Properties for Ak:

(1) AjAk = Aj+k
(2) (Aj)k = Ajk
where j and k are nonnegative ( ) integers and A0
is assumed to be I
For diagonal matrices :
d1
0
D
M

0
d2
M
0

L
L
O
L

0
d1k 0 L

k
0
0
d
L
k
2
D
M M

d n
0 0 L

0
M

d nk

1.17

Transpose of a matrix () )( :
a11 a12 L a1n
a

a
L
a
22
2 n
If A 21
M mn ,
M M M M

am1 am 2 L amn
a11 a21 L am1
a

a
L
a
22
m 2
then AT 12
M n m
M M M M

a1n a2 n L amn
The transpose operation is to move the entry aij (original at the position (i, j)) to
the position (j, i)
Note that after performing the transpose operation, AT is with the size nm

1.18

Ex 8: Find the transpose of the following matrix

1
1 2 3
0
2
(c A 2 4

(a) A
(b) A 4 5 6

)
8
7 8 9
1 1

Sol: (a)

2
A
AT 2
8
(b)
1 2 3
1
A 4 5 6 AT 2

7 8 9
3
(c
0
1

)
0
T
A 2 4
A

1
1

8
4 7
5 8

6 9
2 1
4 1
1.19

Properties of transposes (() ):

(1) ( AT )T A

( 2) ( A B )T AT B T
(3) (cA)T c( AT )
( 4) ( AB )T B T AT
Properties (2) and (4) can be generalized to the sum or product of
multiple matrices. For example, (A+B+C)T = AT+BT+CT and (ABC)T =
CTBTAT

1.20

Ex 9: Show that (AB)T and BTAT are equal

1 2
2
A 1 0
3
0 2
1

3 1
B 2 1
3 0

Sol:
T

2
1 2 3 1
2 1

T
( AB) 1 0
3 2 1 6 1
0 2

1
3
0
1 2

3 2 3
B A

1
0

2 1 0
1 0 2

2 3
1

2 6

1 1

2 6 1

1
2

1
2

1.21

Symmetric matrix () :
A square matrix A is symmetric if A = AT
Skew-symmetric matrix () : :
A square matrix A is skew-symmetric if AT = A

Ex:

1 2 3
If A a 4 5 is symmetric, find a, b, c?

b c 6
Sol:
1 2 3
1 a b
T
A

A
A a 4 5 AT 2 4 c

a 2, b 3, c 5
b c 6
3 5 6
1.22

Ex:

0 1 2
If A a 0 3 is a skew-symmetric, find a, b, c?

b c 0
Sol:
0 a b
0 1 2
A a 0 3
AT 1 0 c

b c 0
2 3 0
A AT a 1, b 2, c 3

Note: AAT must be symmetric

Pf:

( AAT )T ( AT )T AT AAT
AA is symmetric
T

The matrix A could be with any size,

i.e., it is not necessary for A to be a
square matrix.
In fact, AAT must be a square matrix.
1.23

Before finishing this section, two properties will be discussed,

which is held for real numbers, but not for matrices: the first is the
commutative property of matrix multiplication and the second is
the cancellation law ()

Real number () :
ab = ba (Commutative property of real-number multiplication)
Matrix () : :
AB BA
mn n p n p m n

Three situations for BA:

( 1) If m p , then AB is defined, but BA is undefined
( 2) If m p, m n, then AB M m m , BA M n n (Sizes are not the
(3) If m p n, then AB M mm BA M mm
(Sizes are the same, but resultant matrices are not equal)

same)

1.24

Ex 4:

AB BA

Sow that AB and BA are not equal for the matrices.

1 3
2 1
B
A
and

0
2
2

Sol:

1 3
AB

5
2 1 2
0 2 4 4

7
2 1 1 3 0
BA

0
2
2

1
4

AB BA (noncommutativity of matrix multiplication)

1.25

Notes:
(1) A+B = B+A (the commutative law of matrix addition)

(2) AB BA (the matrix multiplication is not with the

commutative law) (so the order of matrix multiplication is very
important) ()

1.26

Real number :
ac bc, c 0
ab
(Cancellation law for real numbers)
Matrix () :
AC BC and C 0 (C is not a zero matrix)
(1) If C is invertible () , then A = B
(2) If C is not invertible () , then A B
(Cancellation law is not necessary to be valid)

1.27

Ex 5: (An example in which cancellation is not valid)

Show that AC=BC
1 3
2 4
1 2
A
, B
, C

0
1
2
3

1
2

Sol:

1
AC
0
2
BC
2

3
1
4
3

1 2 2 4

1
2 1 2
1 2 2 4

1 2 1 2

So, although AC BC , A B

1.28

2.3 The Inverse of a Matrix ()

Inverse matrix:
Consider A M nn ,
if there exists a matrix B M n n such that AB BA I n ,
then (1) A is invertible (or nonsingular)
(2) B is the inverse of A

B A 1

Note:
A square matrix that does not have an inverse ()
is called noninvertible (or singular) ()

1.29

Theorem : The inverse of a matrix is unique

If B and C are both inverses of the matrix A, then B = C
.
AB I
Pf:
C ( AB) CI
property of matrix multiplication and the property
(CA) B C (associative
for the identity matrix)
IB C
BC
Consequently, the inverse of a matrix is unique.

Notes:
(1) The inverse of A is denoted by A1

(2) AA1 A1 A I

A1
A
1.30